Battle of Haldighati (1576)

     

Remembered as the most important event in Rajput history, the battle of Haldighati was an “Indecisive Battle”. It was fought between Akbar (Ruler of Mughals) and Maharana Pratap Singh I (Ruler of Rajputs). It was a short-span battle that lasted for only 4 hours.

The political struggle behind the battle was that by fifteenth century nearly all Rajput kingdoms had surrendered under Mughal ruler, except Mewar who was unwilling to compromise on itsindependence. To persuade Mewar Ruler Rana Pratap Singh, Akbar had sent many envoys to have talks on peace treaties. Ultimately, Rana Pratap did agree to sign the treaty but only on his own terms that he would not tolerate the leadership of any foreign ruler.

Ignited on the bold stand of Rana Pratap, Mughals decided to fight against Rana Pratap, also allied by Raja Man Singh of Amber. The two armies stood agaist each other at the Haldighati pass. Rana Pratap was an exceptionally good warrior and he stood proudly on his horse Chetak to take a plunge in the challenge. The battle was a fierce one with strong repulsions from both sides; ecstatic techniques were displayed at the war front. 

The battle of haldighati continued in guerilla manner. The battle was significant for the tenacity displayed by Rajputs and Bhils and the art of defensive mountain warfare. Maharana Pratapsingh established a great example of courage and bravery in the battle of Haldighati.

Battles of Panipat

  

To extend the boundaries of his empire Muhammad Shahabuddin Ghori he entered into India in 1175 CE. He advanced into Gujarat in 1178 CE and advanced further by seizing Peshawar and Lahore and he ended the rule of Ghaznavids in Panjab with the help of the ruler of Jammu. 

As a result of successive conquests the boundaries of Ghori’s kingdom extended to the border of Prithviraj's kingdom. In 1191 Muhammad Ghori attacked Sirhind or Bathinda on northwestern frontier of Chauhan kingdom. Prithviraj's along with his army, led by vassal Govinda-Raj, rushed to the defense of the frontier, and the two armies fought a battle at Tarain. This is how the First war of Tairan begun. 

Two wings of Turkic army was defeated and fled away while Muhammad Ghori could not recover from the blow and fainted from the shock. The army surrendered and Muhammad was made prisoner. Muhammad of Ghor begged for mercy and Prithviraj pardoned him.

In 1192, Ghori after returning to his capital Ghazni challenged Prithviraj at theSecond Battle of Tarain. Both Muhmmad and Prithviraj increased their army’sstrength. Muhmmad divided his huge troop into 5 parts and Prithviraj increased army with the help of 150 Rajput kingdoms. Muhammad Ghori asked Prithviraj Chauhan to either change his religion to Muslim or be prepared to be defeated by him. Prithviraj Chauhan cease-fired.

Muhammad Ghori decieved Prithviraj with a letter of acceptance of the treaty. The Rajput army was in a relaxed mood. Suddenly Ghori`s army attacked Prithviraj`s army in the wee hours. wever the Rajput army could raise a protection against Muslim army and they retreated. At the end of the day Muhammad Ghori was victorious.

 About hundred thousand Rajput soldiers died in the battle. The second battle of Tarain opened the way for conquerors of India. Muhammad and his successors established an Islamic Empire in India as the Sultanate of Delhi. 

The first battle of Panipat saw emergence of the Mughals, mightiest power In Indian History. According to legends it was the oldest Indian battles to have used Gunpowder Firearms and Field Artillary. The battle was fough between two mega-powers. Babur, then ruler of Kabul and Ibrahim Lodhi, king of Delhi Sultanate. It was fought near Panipat (Present Day Haryana). 

Although Babur had a fighting Army of 8,000 soldiers and Lodhi had around 40,000 soldiers along with 400 war elephants, yet the main element that proved an ace-card for Babur for the use of field Artillary. Apart from fighting and defeating men, the artillery was powerful to scare elephants and cause havoc amongst them. In the end, it was Babur who emerged victorious and established the Mughal Empire, while Ibrahim Lodhi perished in the Battle. It could be concluded that physical strength cannot stand in front of strong cognitive skills, leadership and maneuvering. 

• Second Battle of Panipat (1556)

The Second Battle of Panipat marked the beginning of Akbar’s reign in India, as it was in the first year of his holding the throne. The battle was fought between Akbar (Ruler of Mughal Dynasty) and Muhammad Adil Shah (ruler of Pashtan Suri Dynasty), along with his Prime Minister Hemu. 

In the year 1956, Akbar had successfully taken up the throne of his father when Mughals had spread across Kabul, Kandahar and parts of Delhi and Punjab. Hemu (Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya) was the military chief of Afghan Sultan Mohammad Adil Shah, who was the ruler of Chunar at that point. Adil Shah was on a trail to remove Mughals from India. 

Taking the advantage of Humayun’s death he was successful in capturing the reigns of Agra and Delhi without much difficulty. This victory of Adil Shah and Hemu didn’t last much as Bairam Shah, who was the chief Minister and guardian of Akbar proceeded with a large army towards Delhi. 

The battle was fought at Panipat with strong competitors on both sides. Hemu had a large army along with 1500 War elephants. Hemu was struck with an arrow in his eye and subsequently the army got panicked seeing their unconscious leader. The battle concluded with Mughals crowned with victory. 

The head of Hemu was chopped and the torso was made to travel to Delhi tocelebrate the grand victory of Mughals. Thus, it was this ferocious battle that reestablished the strong Mughal Empire which had a powerful reign of Akbar to create history.

• Third Battle of Panipat (1761)

The third battle of Panipat was fought between the Afghans and the Marathas.The battle was significant as it marked the end of Maratha dominance in India. At the time of this battle Afghans were under the leadership of Ahmed Shah Abdali and the Marathas under the leadership of Peshwas had established control across Northern India. During the eighteenth century the parallel decline of Mughal Empire and defeat of Marathas in the battle of Panipat saw a new beginning of the colonial rule in India. 

The main cause attributed towards the defeat of Marathas in the battle was the lack of allies due to their brutal behavior during the earlier years of reign. Allimportant rulers including Sikhs, Jats, kingdom of Awadh, Rajputs and many more were all upset with the treatment of Marathas towards them. The third battle of Panipat was fought in between Kaalaa Aamb and Sanauli road of present day. Both forces moved in lines, but intelligently the Afghans had cut all possible lines for Maratha Forces.

The Maratha Army consisted of the artillery in front, protected by infantry, pike men, bowman and musketeers. The cavalry was instructed to wait behind the artillery and bayonet holding musketeers and they were ready to charge when control of battlefield is fully established. Behind the line were thirty thousand young men who were not that expert in fighting and then about thirty thousand civilians. 

This civilian line consisted of many middle class men, women, children who took this as an opportunity to visit pilgrimage to visit holy places and shrines and also Aryavarta (Aryan Land). Behind the civilian line there was another protective infantry line composed of comparatively young and experiencedsoldiers.  

On the other hand the Afghans also formed up a similar kind of Infantry in the third battle of Panipat, the left wing formed by the Najib`s Rohillas and the right wing by two brigades of Persian troops. The left center was controlled by two higher officials, Shuja-ud-Daulah and ahmad shah`s Vizier Shah Wali. The right center consisted of Rohillas, under Hafiz Rahamat and other chiefs of the Indian Pathans. 

Pasand Khan led the left wing, which was composed of well-chosen Afghan horsemen. This way the army moved forward with the Shah at the center so that he could watch and control the battle. 

The battle lasted for two months which ultimately resulted in the defeat of Marathas and their dominance in India. 

Battle of Tarain(1191 & 1192)

  

To extend the boundaries of his empire Mu?ammad Shahabuddin Ghori he entered into India in 1175 CE. He advanced into Gujarat in 1178 CE and advanced further by seizing Peshawar and Lahore and he ended the rule of Ghaznavids in Panjab with the help of the ruler of Jammu. 

As a result of successive conquests the boundaries of Ghori’s kingdom extended to the border of Prithviraj's kingdom. In 1191 Muhammad Ghori attacked Sirhind or Bathinda on northwestern frontier of Chauhan kingdom. Prithviraj's along with his army, led by vassal Govinda-Raj, rushed to the defense of the frontier, and the two armies fought a battle at Tarain. This is how the First war of Tairan begun. 

Two wings of Turkic army was defeated and fled away while Muhammad Ghori could not recover from the blow and fainted from the shock. The army surrendered and Muhammad was made prisoner. Muhammad of Ghor begged for mercy and Prithviraj pardoned him.

In 1192, Ghori after returning to his capital Ghazni challenged Prithviraj at theSecond Battle of Tarain. Both Muhmmad and Prithviraj increased their army’sstrength. Muhmmad divided his huge troop into 5 parts and Prithviraj increased army with the help of 150 Rajput kingdoms. Muhammad Ghori asked Prithviraj Chauhan to either change his religion to Muslim or be prepared to be defeated by him. Prithviraj Chauhan cease-fired.

Muhammad Ghori decieved Prithviraj with a letter of acceptance of the treaty. The Rajput army was in a relaxed mood. Suddenly Ghori`s army attacked Prithviraj`s army in the wee hours. wever the Rajput army could raise a protection against Muslim army and they retreated. At the end of the day Muhammad Ghori was victorious.

 About hundred thousand Rajput soldiers died in the battle. The second battle of Tarain opened the way for conquerors of India. Muhammad and his successors established an Islamic Empire in India as the Sultanate of Delhi. 

Major Wars In Indian History

 India has seen many rise and falls in its ancient time, the land has witnessed the establishment of first human civilization and at the same time this ancient civilization has struggled a lot to retain its own existence.

As the country has faced several foreign invasions from time to time and the country has been under the rule of diverse dynasties that have fought many wars against invaders as well as among themselves. Indian history has seen many dreadful wars but those awful moments are commemorated due to various courageous and brave souls of the Country, Truly said, India has always been the birth place of many  heroic and brave warriors.

All historic wars of the country clearly reflected the heroism and vigor of Indian blood. Though these wars priced fathers of many infants, husbands of many newly weds,  loving brothers of many sisters and darling sons of many mothers but this great sacrifices of Indians for their motherland was noteworthy and that is why Indian historical wars becomes an important aspect for any person interested in Indian History.

Few of the major Indian wars fought in the Indian History are:

Kalinga War:  This war was fought between the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka and the state of Kalinga.   

First & Second  Battle of Tarain: This war was fought between Muhammad of Ghor against the armies of Prithviraj III.

First Battle of Panipat:  This war was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodhi. 

Second Battle of Panipat: This war was fought in 1556 by Akbar, which also signaled the beginning of Akbar`s reign.

 Third battle of Panipat: This war was fought by the Marathas supported by the French on one side and the Afghans on the other side. 

Battle of Haldighati: This war was fought between Maharana Pratap Singh of Mewar and Mughal emperor Akbar of Delhi. 

Battle of Buxar: This war was fought between the British East India Company on one side and the combined armies of Mir Kasim, Suja-ud -Daulah and Shah Alam II on the other side. 

Battle of Plassey: This war finally established the British rule in India. 

Indo- Pakistan War:  This war was fought between India and Pakistan is associated with the secession of East Pakistan to form an independent nation of Bangladesh.

Kargil War:  This war was the geo- political conflict which occurred at the Kargil district of Kashmir along the line of control between Indian and Pakistan.

Kalinga War ( 265-264 B.C)

                                
The Kalinga War is one of the most important wars in Indian History. The war saw a strong fight from two mega-powers, Mauryan Empire based in Magadha and the Kalinga republic involved in a fierce battle over the reign of Kalinga. The Mauryan Empire was then ruled by Ashoka the Great. The war traces its roots to anumber of political and economic reasons. 

The Mauryan Empire since the reign of Bindusara (Ashok’a Father) was on a path of vigorous territorialexpansion. Kalinga was initially under Magadh’s rule during the time of Nanda’s but gained independence during Maurya’s reign. This was certainly a matter ofpolitical prestige for the Mauryas. Geographically, Mauryas had Chola towards their one side and Kalinga on the other side. 

It is believed that as The Cholas and Kalingas were enemies to Mauryas, they naturally became each other allies. It was Kalinga who was extremely influential in Maurya’s defeat in the battle of Bindusara on Cholas. Thus, with this strongpolitical history it was evident that Ashoka was all prepared to attack Kalinga since his inception of the throne.   

The overseas trade and other activities of Kalinga threatened Magadh’s position in all Economic matters. Magadh was dependent on neighboring powers for its sea trade, and Kalinga’s brutal treatment to Magadh’s traders gave Maurya’s strong reasons on Economic fronts as well. 

The Kalinga war has no parallels in terms of intensity among all fierce wars inIndian History. The war changed the trail of Ashoka’s thinking and morals. On witnessing the blood-shed and destruction with his own eyes Ashoka left the path of battle and wars moving on a path of Buddhism

Indus River Valley Civilization

CRADLE OF INDIAN CULTURE

India has made a major contribution to world history in the form of the Indus valley Civilization. This civilization originated in the fertile plains of the Indus River (also Sindhu), in the third and fourth millennium BC. The Indus Valley Civilization, or the Harappan Culture, was the contemporary of the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia, and is acknowledged the third major civilization in the history of humankind. Archaeological excavations have revealed that the people of this culture enjoyed a life of luxury and refinement, with a highly evolved civic system and prosperous trade links.

Harappa and Mohenjodaro (present-day Pakistan), the two cities excavated first, appear to have functioned as twin capitals of this civilization. Later excavations revealed smaller cities such as Kot Diji in Sindh, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Ropar in Punjab, and Lothal in Gujarat. Harappa and Mohenjodaro show a surprising similarity despite being 350 miles apart. Both cities consist of an acropolis and a lower city, each fortified separately. The acropolis contains large assembly halls, granaries, and edifices for religious purposes. It was thus the administrative and religious nerve center of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of the cities had large public baths built on highly scientific lines. These baths were generally used for religious bathing.


The lower cities are divided into rectangles by broad streets. All the houses were connected directly to the well-planned drainage system of covered drains and soak pits. The grid layout of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, along with their advanced drainage system, has made them the first truly planned cities in the world. Each house had a courtyard, private wells, and bathrooms and was built with well-baked standardized bricks.

MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT

People of the Harappan Culture appear to have known the use of the potter's wheel. Archaeological excavations in the various cities have revealed a hoard of pottery and potshards, which are decorated with geometric patterns. These items reflect the aesthetic sense of this ancient culture. These people were fond of ornamentation as proved by a large number of necklaces, anklets, rings, earrings, amulets, beads, and nose studs that have been recovered from various sites. The artisans of the Indus Valley Civilization made exquisite jewelry, using a variety of material like gold, silver, copper, stone, and bone.

The most mystifying find from the Harappan Culture sites is the large number of well-carved seals made of steatite. The seals bear representation of animals, figures, and symbols of the religious life of the people accompanied by a pictorial script that has yet to be deciphered. One particular seal bears an image of a male god who has been identified as the prototype of God Shiva, as shown seated in a yogic posture surrounded by animals. The seals may have been used for trade as some seals have been found in numerous Mesopotamian sites.

The people of the Harappan culture appear to have used both cotton and woolen textiles. A number of small figurines excavated from various sites show that they are clad in some sort of garment. Skeletal remains from the different sites prove that animals like the buffalo, sheep, elephant, bull, and camel were domesticated. People had the time and leisure to pursue fine arts-the excellent carvings on the seals and some exquisite stone sculptures from Harappa show the high degree of development. Of great importance is the copper figurine of the Dancing Girl. This figurine not only shows the expertise in metalworking of the Harappan people but also reflects the repertoire of the ornaments bedecking this figurine. Small toys like carts harnessed with oxen are testimony to the expertise of the artisans.

DECLINE

The Harappan culture declined suddenly between 1800-1700 BC and its end is as puzzling as its beginning. How and why did this first great empire of South Asia decay into oblivion? One cannot say with certainty whether massacres by marauders or the inbuilt decay that had set in caused the decline of this powerful civilization. Another school of thought relates the demise of the Indus valley civilization to have been brought about by a major tectonic shift that caused continuous floods of this area.

Research has proved that the decline of the glorious Harappan culture was due to a variety of factors, both manmade and natural. In the beginning of the second millennium BC, there were great changes in the environmental conditions-the climate changed and large parts of the plains were flooded when tectonic changes threw up a dam in the lower Indus Valley. There were also other socio-economic factors that contributed to the decline. Agricultural production declined with the changes in the climate and the big cities could no longer sustain themselves. People from the major centers perhaps left for the smaller outposts and slowly riveted back to village life when they could no longer maintain the prerequisites of an urban existence.

IMPORTANCE

Even today, excavations at Harappa throw up new facts, not just about the great civilization but also about mankind's evolution. The people of the Indus Valley Civilization are a link to the past, a window into the life and history of our ancestors. Without doubt, the people of the Harappan Culture led a life of sophistication. "The land where the first civilized man trod on earth"-this is how the great poet laureate Rabindra Nath Tagore has described the fertile plains of Punjab, the breeding grounds of this great civilization.

Yadavas of Devgiri (History of Maratha)

YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI

Yadavas of Devagiri -The predecessors of Yadavas of Devagiri, who Devagiri. ruled over Khandesh, Nasik and Ahmadnagar Districts, were the vassals of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta and the Chalukyas of Kalyani for a period of over three hundred years. Drdhaprahara, the founder of the family hailing from Dhvaravatipura or modern Dvaraka in Kathiawar, flourished in the first half of the 9th century A.D. and had Chandradityapura or modern Chandor in Nasik district as his capital. His son Seunachandra I founded a city called Seunapura and also gave the name Seun-desa to the country on the confines of Dandaka and included Devagiri, modern Daulatabad, in the Aurangabad district. Inscriptions of the successors of Seunachandra style themselves as Seunas. Kama, one of the remote successors of this Seunachandra I had as son Bhillama V who was the first independent king of the race.

Bhillama ascended the throne in 1185 A.D. This was the time of a great upheaval in the Deccan. Failure of Chalukya Someshvara IV in consolidating his power, emboldened him in bidding for a paramount power in the Deccan. With the help of his able generals, he wrested power and territories from Someshvara IV including Kalyarm in 1189 A.D. Inscriptions of 'Bhillama's reign refer to his supermacy over Belvola, Tardavadi and Madagihar in the old Jath State. The statement of the Mutgi inscription that he secured victories over the Kalnigas, Gaudas, Vashigas, Arigas, Napalas and the Panehalas seems to be very extravagant. According to Hemadri, Bhillama founded the city of Devagiri and probably made it his capital. The earliest mention of Devagiri as the capital of Seunas is found in an inscription of Jaitugi or Jartrapala, son of Bhillama in 1196 A.D. Inscriptional evidence reveals that Bhillama associated with him his son in the Government from A.D. 1191 and died shortly after 1193 A.D. During the closing years of his reign he had to fight with Ballala II of Hoyasalas with no success. Jaitugi also failed to dislodge Ballala II from his position. Nevertheless the kingdom of Seunas during Jaitugi's reign extended upto the confluence of Krshna and Tungabhadra bringing Seunas near Kakatiyas who were also defeated by jaitugi. Jaitugi ruled up to 1210 (1191 to 1210) A.D. and was succeeded by his son Singhana about the year 1210 (1210-1247 A.D.).

Singhana was certainly the most distinguished member of the family. He put an end to the rule of the Kolhapur branch of the Silahara family by overthrowing Bhoja II. With the exception of powerful Hoyasals, Singhana was able to assert supremacy over all kingdoms in the south. Singhana's empire extended from Khandesh up to the Shimoga and Anahtpur districts, and from the western coast (including Northern Konkan) up to the eastern parts of Hyderabad and Berar. During the reign of this king, Sharangdhara composed his famous treatise on music called Sarigita-ratnakara. Singhana was on the throne up to June 1247 A.D. Krshna, his grandson, came to the throne in 1247 A.D., and continued Singhana's policy of expanding the Seuna empire in all directions. Stone inscriptions of Krshna found in the Shimoga, Chitaldurg, Bellary, Dharvar and Belganv districts show that he succeeded in retaining the hounds of the kingdom of his grandfather Jalhana. The author of Suktimuktavali was his counsellor and commander. Krshna appointed Mahadeva, his brother, as heir apparent who succeeded him in 1261 A.D., Mahadeva continued hostilities with the Hoysalas, and Silaharas of Northern Konkan, the Vaghelas of Gujarat, the Parmaras of Malva and the Kakatiyas of Telunga country. His attempt to penetrate into the heart of the Hoyasala kingdom was crowned with a failure. Hemadri, the founder of Hemadapanti architecture, was his minister. Mahadeva closed his reign in 1270-1271 A.D. Civil war between his son Amna and Ramachandra, the son of King Krshna resulted into the treacherous capture and slaughter of the former by the latter. Ramachandra in the early years of his rule made a frantic effort to crush the power of Hoyasalas, but was unable to achieve the end. He also failed in overcoming Vaghela Sararigadeva. He, however, succeeded in defeating the Chiefs of Dahala (modern Jabalpur), Vijrakara (modem Vairagarah in Madhya Pradesh) and Bhandagara (modern Bhandara in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra). Inscriptions of Ramchandra show that he was able to retain the Seuna kingdom during the early days of his rule. But the prestige of the Seuna kingdom was irretrievably damaged on account of Ramachandra's failure to save his capital from being plundered by Ala-ud-din Khilji the governor of Kara, who invaded Devagiri by way of Eliehpur in 1296 A.D. Hereditary enemies now pressed hard upon them. Kakatiya Prataparudra succeeded in pushing the western border of his empire upto Medak and Raichur. In A.D. 1305, Hoyasala Ballala III wrested from Ramchandra Banavasi, Santaliga and Kogali. In fact, there is no evidence to prove  that Shimoga and Chitaldurg districts were under the rule of Seunas after 1300 A.D.. The Deccan was again raided by Muslims, when Seunas were fighting for defence in the south. Ramachandra had to swerve from his allegiance to the Government of Delhi due to strained relations and in 1307 A.D. Ala-ud-din Khilji sent Malik-Naib Kafur with a great army, who overran the Seuna kingdom and took Ramachandra a prisoner to Delhi. Ramachandra was, however, released after a period of six months and was allowed to rule his kingdom as a vassal under the Sultanate army for an invasion of Telingana country. Ramachandra helped Muslims against Hoyasala Ballala III of Dorasamudra in 1311.

Ramachandra was succeeded by his son Shankaradeva in 1311 A.D. who antagonised the Sultan by his hostile activities. In A.D. 1313, Malik-Naib directed an expedition against Shankaradeva, killed him and assumed the government of Devagiri. Ala-ud-din's death caused confusion in Delhi. Taking advantage of this, Harapaladeva, the son-in-law of Ramachandra [The Struggle for Empire p. 48.] declared his independence and captured the fort of Devagiri with the help of Raghava, the minister of Ramachandra. But in 1318 A.D. [Ibid., p. 40.] Mubarak the son and successor of Ala-ud-din, recovered Devagiri by defeating and killing Harapaladeva or Haripala. Raghava suffered defeat at the hands of Khusrav Khan, Mubarak's commander. Thus the kingdom of Seunas passed into the hands of Muslims in 1318 A.D. [Ibid., p. 42.]

(From Gazetter of Satara)