tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-26740206196953467182024-03-19T03:12:06.673-07:00BEST COACHING FOR UGC NET- HISTORYAt JAGDISH ACADEMY you will find a very innovative teaching system that can help to unfold your potential to achieve higher standards. You will have the right mix of theoretical classes with microscopic details to develop comprehensive understanding of concepts and their application blended with periodic tests to cultivate proper examination temperament according to newer trends and patterns. Call us at 9910337978 or visit at 28/11, 1st floor Jia Sarai , Near IIT, Hauzkhas, New DelhiAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.comBlogger76125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-86688185481701651862012-01-13T05:59:00.000-08:002012-01-13T06:07:54.751-08:00UGC change pattern from June 2012<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-size: 16px;">From June 2012 onwards the pattern</span> for Paper III will be changed.UGC has decided that all the question paper for the test will be objective type. Due to the unhappiness expressed for subjective typr question paper by the students and delay in declaring the results, UGC has taken<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> <span style="color: blue; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">interviews</span></a> in changing the pattern of Paper III. Students can expect results much before the next NET exam.</div>
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Students appearing for the NET will be able to evaluate their performance immediately after Exam.The UGC, decided that candidates can take carbon prints of their optical reader<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD5" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: transparent !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat !important; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 0, 255) !important; border-bottom-style: dotted !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: blue; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px !important; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; position: static; vertical-align: baseline;">answer</span></a> sheets with them for<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD3" style="background-attachment: scroll !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: transparent !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat repeat !important; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 0, 255) !important; border-bottom-style: dotted !important; border-bottom-width: 1px !important; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: blue; cursor: pointer !important; display: inline !important; float: none !important; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px !important; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; position: static; vertical-align: baseline;">verification</span></a> at their homes. UGC chairperson Ved Prakash has said that it will enable students to know instantly how well they have attmpted the questions in the test. </div>
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<b>UGC’s NET examination consists of three papers with papers I and II being objection type and paper III being descriptive type, till date. Earlier in June 2010, the structure of paper III of NET exam was revised into 2 essay questions, 3 analytical/evaluation questions, 9 definitional/short answer questions and 5 text-based questions.</b></div>
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<b>“The commission discussed issues pertaining to objectivity in making of paper III, transparency, reducing the inter and intra examiner variability in marking of paper III, delay in declaration of NET results and also recommendations of the NET moderation committee to change paper III from descriptive to objective type on the pattern of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research - NET examination,” UGC member said in an interview.</b></div>
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<b>The UGC, which is the highest decision making body for higher education in the country, has also considered the issue of relaxation in marks for differently-abled candidates in the NET examination and decided to reduce minimum qualifying marks for them.</b></div>
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<b>Now differently-abled candidates have to get 35 marks in paper I and II separately and 80 marks combining papers I and II combined and 80 marks in paper III. Even though UGC’s decision has eased the pressure of the student community, the academic community felt that only with descriptive questions one can judge the candidate’s in-depth knowledge of a subject</b>.</div>
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</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com14tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-4779241058694975252011-12-08T07:27:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:27:28.893-08:00ANCIENT INDIA: SOURCES, LITERATURE AND SCIENCE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">ANCIENT INDIA: SOURCES, LITERATURE AND SCIENCE</span></h4><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #00b050;">INFORMATION SOURCES FOR ANCIENT INDIA</span></h6><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Indian literary sources</strong></span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 107px;"></col><col style="width: 72px;"></col><col style="width: 72px;"></col><col style="width: 91px;"></col><col style="width: 274px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Source</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Author</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Language</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Date</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #dfd8e8; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Veda Samhitas</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Various</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Sanskrit</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">1<sup>st</sup> m.</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">BCE</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Gives account of life of people in addition to philosophy, religion etc</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Arthashastra</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Chanakya</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Sanskrit</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">4<sup>th</sup> c. BCE</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Covers Mauryan period under Chandragupta Maurya</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Treatise on statecraft, economy and military strategy</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #dfd8e8; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Sangam literature</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Various</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Tamil</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">c. 600 BCE – 300 CE</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Primarily Dealt with everyday themes</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Foreign literary sources</strong></span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 90px;"></col><col style="width: 95px;"></col><col style="width: 72px;"></col><col style="width: 83px;"></col><col style="width: 276px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Source</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Author</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Language</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Date</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Indika</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Megasthenes</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Greek</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">4<sup>th</sup> c. BCE</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Ambassador of Seleucus I to court of Chandragupta Maurya</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Used by later writers Strabo and Arrian</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Describes geography, politics, various kingdoms, caste system</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Indica</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Arrian</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Greek</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">1<sup>st</sup> c. CE</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Considered one of most important sources about India</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Covers travel of Alexander’s officer Nearchus from India to Babylon</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Covers geography, esp. Indus and Ganges</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Describes social structure</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Describes seven castes, physical appearance, absence of slavery</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Used Indika (Megasthenes) as source</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Geographica</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Strabo</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Greek</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">1<sup>st</sup> c. CE</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Descriptive history of people and places all over the world</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Consists of 17 volumes of material</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Fa-Hien</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Chinese</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Around 400 CE</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Travelled to India/Ceylon to obtain Buddhist scriptures</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Epigraphical sources</strong></span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;">Note that more than 55% of epigraphical inscriptions in India are in Tamil</div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 122px;"></col><col style="width: 106px;"></col><col style="width: 97px;"></col><col style="width: 292px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Inscription</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Location</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Attributed to</strong></span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>(date)</strong></span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Indus valley inscriptions</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">IVC</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">c. 2600 – 1900 BCE</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Indus script remains undeciphered</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Edicts of Asoka</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">All over India</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Asoka</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">3<sup>rd</sup> c. BCE</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">In Praktrit, Sanskrit, Greek</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><a href="http://iashelp.com/2009/12/11/study-material-general-studies-indian-history-5/" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;">See here for details</a></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Heliodorus pillar</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Besnagar</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">(Madhya Pradesh)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">c. 110 BCE</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">In Sanskrit (Brahmi)</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Dedicated by Heliodorus to god Vasudeva</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Heliodorus was the Ambassador of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to court of Sunga king Bhagabhadra</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Describes relationship b/w Sungas and Indo-Greeks</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Hathigumpha incription</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Udayagiri</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">(Orissa)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Kharavela</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">(Kalinga)</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">(150 BCE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">In Prakrit (Brahmi script)</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Main source of info about Kharavela</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Mentions conflict with Demetrius</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Mentions conflict with Uttarapatha</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Rabatak inscription</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Rabatak</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">(Afghanistan)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Kanishka</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">127-151 CE</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">In Bactrian (Greek script)</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Describes Kushan dynasty</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Halmidi inscription</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Halmidi</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">(Karnataka)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">c. 450 CE</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Oldest inscription in Kannada (Brahmi script)</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #00b050;">LITERATURE IN ANCIENT INDIA</span></h6><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Important ancient Sanskrit literature</strong></span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 145px;"></col><col style="width: 98px;"></col><col style="width: 112px;"></col><col style="width: 261px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Work</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Category</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Author</strong></span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>(date)</strong></span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Mahabharata</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Epic</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Vyasa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Ramayana</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Epic</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Valmiki</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Ashtadhyayi</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Treatise on grammar</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Panini</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">(5<sup>th</sup> -4<sup>th</sup> c. BCE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">One of the earliest known grammars of Sanskrit</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Nirukta</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Treatise on grammar</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Yaksa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Mrichakatika</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Play</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Shudraka</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">(2<sup>nd</sup> c. BCE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Set in Pataliputra</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Hindi film Utsav was based on this</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Karnabhara, Charudatta</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Play</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Bhasa</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">(1<sup>st</sup> BCE – 4<sup>th</sup>CE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Bhasa wrote about 13 plays</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">He is considered to be one of most important Sanskrit authors (after Kalidasa)</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Urubhanga</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Play</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Bhasa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Based on Mahabharata</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Depicts story of Duryodhana after fight with Bhima</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Madhyamavyayoga</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Play</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Bhasa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Based on the Mahabharata</span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Malavikagnimitram</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Play</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kalidasa</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">(4<sup>th</sup> -5<sup>th</sup> CE)</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Gupta period</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Tells the story of King Agnimitra falling in love with servant girl Malavika</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Agnimitra was the son and successor to Pushyamitra Sunga</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Abhijanasakuntalam</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Play</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kalidasa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Tells story of king Dushyanta and his marriage to Shankuntala</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Considered to be Kalidasa’s most popular play</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Vikramaorvasiyam</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Play</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kalidasa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Story of king Pururavas in love with celestial Urvashi</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Raghuvamsa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Poetry</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kalidasa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kings of Raghu dynasty</span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kumarasambhava</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Poetry</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kalidasa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Story of birth of Karthikeya</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Rtusamhara</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Poetry</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kalidasa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Describes six seasons using context of love</span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Meghaduta</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Poetry</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kalidasa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Story of a Yaksha sending a message to his lover through a cloud</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">One of Kalidasa’s most popular poems</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Ratnavali</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Play</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Harshavardhana</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">(590-647 CE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Story of king Udayana and princess Ratnavali</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Contains one of the earliest references to festival Holi</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Nagananda</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Play</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Harshavardhana</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Describes prince Jimutavahana’s self-sacrifice to save serpents</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Priyadarsika</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Play</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Harshavardhana</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kiratarjuniya</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Poetry</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Bharavi</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Describes contest b/w Arjuna and lord Shiva</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Shishupala Vadha</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Poetry</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Magha</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Important ancient literature in Tamil</strong></span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;">Note that Sangam literature itself contains about 2400 poems by more than 470 poets. For obvious reasons, not all of them can be listed here</div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 135px;"></col><col style="width: 71px;"></col><col style="width: 106px;"></col><col style="width: 304px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Work</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Category</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Author</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Ettuthokai</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Poetry</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Various</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">(600 BCE-</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">300 BCE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Part of Sangam literature</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Ettuthokai contains 8 anthologies:</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Ainkurunuru, Akananuru, Purananuru, Kalittokai, Kuruntokai, Narrinai, Paripatal, Patirrupattu</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Each of these anthologies in turn contain hundreds of poems by multiple authors</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Deals with two themes: Akam (personal life) and Puram (war, politics)</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADuttokai" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;">See here for more information on the Ettuthokai</a></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Pathupattu</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Poetry</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Various</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Part of Sangam literature</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Pathupattu contains 10 idylls (mid length books):</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Tirumurugattruppatai, Kurinjipattu, Malaipatukatam, Maturaikkanji, Mullaipattu, Netunalvatai, Pattinappalai, Perumpanatrupatai, Porunaratruppatai, Sirupanatrupatai</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Deals mainly with themes of nature</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattupp%C4%81%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADu" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;">See here for more information on Pathupattu</a></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Tolkappiyam</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Grammar</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Tolkappiyar</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Earliest available work of Tamil literature</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Aimperumkappiyam</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Epics</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Various</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Collection of five large narrative epics</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">The five epics were: Silappadhigaram, Manimegalai, Sivaka Chintamani, Valayapathi and Kundalakesi</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Specific epics described below</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Silappadhigaram</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Epic</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Ilango Adigal</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">(1<sup>st</sup> c. CE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Describes story of Kannagi in her quest to save husband Kovalan</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Describes in detail life, politics, trade, settlements of Greeks etc</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Story evolves in themes of three: three kingdoms, three heroes, three heroines etc</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Considered one of most important ancient Tamil literature</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Manimegalai</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Epic</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Seethalai Sathanar</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">(1<sup>st</sup>-2<sup>nd</sup> c. CE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Story of Manimegalai, daughter of Kovalan</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Sequel to Silappadhigaram</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Sivaka Chintamani</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Epic</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Tirutakkatevar</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Story of man who becomes king and then renounces throne</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Valayapathi</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Epic</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Unknown</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Work lost</span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Kundalakesi</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Epic</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Nagakuthanar</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Original work lost, only fragments survive</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Supposedly describes story of Buddhist monk Kundalakesi</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Tirukkural</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Ethics</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Thiruvalluvar</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Couplets of ethics</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Contains 1330 couplets</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">Thirukkural remains the book translated into most number of languages in the world</span></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #00b050;">SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA</span></h6><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 155px;"></col><col style="width: 105px;"></col><col style="width: 143px;"></col><col style="width: 213px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Work</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Subject</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Author</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #dfd8e8; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Vedanga Jyotisha</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Astrology</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Lagadha</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">(1<sup>st</sup> c. BCE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Describes rules for tracking motion of sun and moon</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Yavanajataka</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Astrology</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Sphujidvaja</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">1<sup>st</sup>-2<sup>nd</sup> c. CE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Translated it mean “Nativity as per the Greeks”</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">It is a collection of astrology-related ideas borrowed from Greek world</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Gives rules for building horoscopes</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #dfd8e8; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Surya Siddhanta</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Astronomy</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Establishes rules to determine motions of stellar objects</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Paulisa Siddhanta</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">(Doctrine of Paul)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Astronomy</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Based on works of Paul of Alexandria</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">(c. 378 CE)</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #dfd8e8; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Romaka Siddhanta</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">(Doctrine of the Romans)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Astronomy</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Based on works of Rome</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">It is the only Indian work based on the tropical system</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Vasishta Siddhanta</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Astronomy</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Attributed to sage Vasishta</span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #dfd8e8; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Panchasiddhantika</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Astronomy</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Varahamihira</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">(c. 550 CE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Work that compares five treatises on astronomy viz. Surya Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Vasishta Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhanta</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Sulba sutras</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Mathematics</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Baudhayana (c. 800 BCE), Apasthamba (c. 600 BCE), Katyayana (c. 200 BCE)</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Baudhayana enumerated the Pythagoras theorem. He also described square root of 2 and geometric shapes such as squares and rectangles</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Apasthamba and Katyayana developed these principles further</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #dfd8e8; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Chandahsastra</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Mathematics</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Pingala</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">(4<sup>th</sup>-2<sup>nd</sup> c. BCE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">First known description of binary numeral system in the world</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Also describes Pascal’s triangle, binomial theorem and Fibonacci numbers</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Aryabhatiya</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Astronomy, mathematics</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Aryabhata</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">(c 522 CE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Introduced decimal value notation</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Describes heliocentric model of solar system</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Explained lunar and solar eclipses</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Gave duration of one year as 365 days 6 hrs 12 min 30 sec</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Gave value of pi (3.1416)</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Correctly calculated earth’s circumference as 24,835 miles</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Aryabhata’s principles are still in use for fixing the Hindu calendar Panchanga</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #dfd8e8; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Mahabhaskariya</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Mathematics, astronomy</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Bhaskara I</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">(c. 600 – 680 CE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Representation of numbers in positional system</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Solved Wilson’s theorem and Pell equation</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Brahmasputasiddhanta</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Mathematics, astronomy</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Brahmagupta</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">(c. 630 CE)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Describes solution of linear equation</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Solve system of simultaneous indeterminate equations</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Sum of series</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Introduced the concept of zero</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Formula for cyclic quadrilaterals</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #5f497a;">Rebutted the idea that moon is farther from earth than the sun</span></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">couertesy-iashelp.com</div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com17tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-82595659760486581592011-12-08T07:25:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:25:27.001-08:00THE PALLAVAS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE PALLAVAS<div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1759" style="background-color: #fff5c5; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 280px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallava" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Pallava territories under Narasimhavarman I (c. 650 CE)" class="size-full wp-image-1759" height="143" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Pallava_territories.png" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="Pallava_territories" width="270" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">Pallava territories under Narasimhavarman I (c. 650 CE)</div></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div></span></h4><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Pallavas ruled northern Tamil Nadu and all of Andhra Pradesh between the 3<sup>rd</sup> and 9<sup>th</sup> centuries CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The capital of the Pallavas was Kanchipuram</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The most famous kings of the Pallavas were Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630-668 CE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Throughout their reign, the Pallavas were in constant and continuous conflict with the Chalukyas of Badami as well the Cholas and Pandiyas to the south</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Pallavas are most famous for their patronage of architecture </strong>(eg at Mahabalipuram)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsand visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Pallava Simhavishnu, along with Pandya Kadungon, are credited with ending the much disliked Kalabhra rule in Tamil Nadu c. 600 CE<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The official language of the Pallavas was Tamil, but they patronised Sanskrit and Telugu as well<strong><br />
</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>About Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE)</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Mahendravarman I was a great patron of literature, art and architecture</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>He is the author of the Sanskrit play <em>Mattivilasa Prahasana</em></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He was initially a Jain, but reconverted to Hinduism under the Saiva saint Appar<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Mahendravarman I is considered to be the pioneer of rock cut architecture among the Pallavas<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He also contributed greatly to the Sanskrit dramatised dance worship <em>Kuttiyattam</em><strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>He is also credited with inventing the seven string veena called <em>Parivadhini</em></strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>About Narasimhavarman I (630-668 CE)</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Narasimhavarman I was the most famous of Pallava rulers</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He avenged his father’s defeat at the hands of the Chalukyas by defeating Pulakesi II in 642 CE and occupying Badami (Vatapi) temporarily. <strong>He then assumed the title <em>Vatapikondan</em></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Narasimhavarman I was also known by the name <em>Mammallan</em></strong><em><br />
</em>(great wrestler)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Chinese Buddhist traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during his reign</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The majority of the monuments at Mahabalipuram were constructed during the reign of Narasimhavarman I</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>About the monuments at Mahabalipuram</strong></span></div><div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1760" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 310px;"><strong><strong><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descent_of_the_Ganges_%28Mahabalipuram%29" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="The Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram, the largest open air rock-relief in the world" class="size-medium wp-image-1760" height="129" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Descent_of_the_Ganges-300x129.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="Descent_of_the_Ganges" width="300" /></a></strong></strong><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">The Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram, the largest open air rock-relief in the world</div></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The <em>known</em> structures at Mahabalipuram were built by Narasimhavarman I</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The structures are mostly rock-cut and monolithic</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The monuments are Mahabalipuram have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1984)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">There are four main categories of monuments at Mahabalipuram</div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Ratha Temples:</strong> temples in the form of chariots. There are five such structures making the <em>Pancha Rathas</em></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Mandapas: </strong>cave sanctuaries covered with bas-reliefs. There are 11 such structures</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Rock relief:</strong> sculpted bas-relief on rocks</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Temples:</strong> temples cut out of rock</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>List of important structures at Mahabalipuram</strong></span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 121px;"></col><col style="width: 121px;"></col><col style="width: 374px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Structure</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Category</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Decent of the Ganges</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">(Arjuna’s Penance)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Bas-relief</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Giant open-air relief carved out of monolithic rock</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Largest open-air rock relief in the world</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Interpreted to describe the descent of the river Ganges to earth (or)</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">to describe the penance of Arjuna to receive a boon from Siva</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Also known as Bhagiratha’s Penance</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Varaha Cave Temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Rock-cut cave temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Small monolithic temple</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Other cave temples include Krishna Cave Temple, Pancha Pandava Cave Temple</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Five Rathas</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Rock-cut temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">The <em>Pancha Rathas</em>consist of five temples, each in the shape of a chariot</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">The temples were all carved out of a single large piece of stone</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Shore Temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Structural temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Built with blocks of granite</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Sits on the shoreline of the Bay of Bengal</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Unlike other temples at Mahabalipuram, this is structural not rock-cut</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">It is the earliest important structural temple in southern India</span></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Recent archaeological findings at Mahabalipuram</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">There has been a long standing legend about the Seven Pagodas at Mahabalipuram, i.e. seven rock temples supposedly built on the shore. Until recently, no evidence to support the legend was found</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>However, the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 disrupted the shoreline and has exposed previously sunken monuments at Mahabalipuram</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The most significant development was the uncovering of a large lion statue on the shore, dated to the 7<sup>th</sup> century</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Also uncovered was a small brick structure dated to the Sangam period, before the time of the Pallavas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Following this, the ASI and the Indian Navy explored the waters off Mahabalipuram in 2005 and found remains of two temples, one cave temple and a stone wall</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Further research is awaited</li>
</ul><div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">courtesy-iashelp.com</span></span></div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-65049511161367856002011-12-08T07:23:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:23:56.899-08:00THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI<div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div></span></h4><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;">This post focuses on the early Chalukyas (6<sup>th</sup>-8<sup>th</sup> centuries CE) of Badami. The later Chalukyas (Western and Eastern) will be dealt with in later posts</div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1757" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 160px;"><strong><strong><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Chalukya territories under Pulakesi II (c. 630 CE)" class="size-thumbnail wp-image-1757" height="150" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Badami-chalukya-empire-map.svg-150x150.png" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="Badami-chalukya-empire-map.svg" width="150" /></a></strong></strong><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">Chalukya territories under Pulakesi II (c. 630 CE)</div></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Chalukyas ruled large parts of central and southern India between the 6<sup>th</sup> and 12<sup>th</sup> centuries</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">The Chalukyas consisted of three related dynasties</div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Badami Chalukyas – earliest dynasty, 6<sup>th</sup>-8<sup>th</sup> centuries CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Eastern Chalukyas – 6<sup>th</sup> – 11<sup>th</sup> centuries</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Western Chalukyas – 10<sup>th</sup>-12<sup>th</sup> centuries</li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Chalukya rule was concentrated around present day Karnataka</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Chalukyas were the earliest known proponents of Kannada and were an important contributor to the growth of Kannada language</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Inscriptions from Chalukya period are mainly in Kannada and Sanskrit</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>About the Chalukyas of Badami</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Chalukya kingdom was established by Pulakesi I in 543 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The capital of the Chalukya kingdom was Vatapi (modern Badami)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">This family of early Chalukyas is known as Chalukyas of Badami</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Chalukyas of Badami ruled over all of Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>About Pulakesi II</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Pulakesi II, the son of Pulakesi I, was the most famous Chalukya emperor</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Pulakesi II defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada and halted the southern expansion of Harsha’s kingdom</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Pulakesi II also extended the Chalukya kingdom up to the northern portions of the Pallava kingdom in the south</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Pulakesi II is famous for the Aihole inscription, which gives details regarding his defeat of Harsha</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Chalukyas and Pallavas</strong></span></div><div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1758" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 310px;"><strong><strong><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Virupaksha_temple_at_Pattadakal.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="The Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka" class="size-medium wp-image-1758" height="225" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Virupaksha_temple_at_Pattadakal-300x225.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="Virupaksha_temple_at_Pattadakal" width="300" /></a></strong></strong><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">The Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka</div></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas (of Kanchipuram) were in constant and continuous conflict for more than 200 years</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Pulakesi II defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I and occupied large parts of northern Pallava kingdom</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">However, Mahendravarman’s son Narasimhavarman I defeated Pulakesi II, annexed large parts of the Chalukya kingdom and occupied Badami temporarily</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">This was again reversed by Chalukya Vikramaditya II who defeated Pallava Nandivarman II and <strong>carved a Kannada inscription on the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Architecture under the Chalukyas of Badami</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The architecture of Badami Chalukyas marked an important phase in development of South Indian architecture</li>
<li style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Their style of architecture is also called Karnata Dravida architecture</strong></li>
<li style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Most of their architectural work is concentrated in small area of the Chalukyan heartland in northern Karnataka</li>
<li style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The earliest phase of architecture consists of cave temples at Aihole and Badami (6<sup>th</sup> century). These temples had plan exteriors but exceptionally well finished interiors including pillared verandah, columned hall etc</li>
<li style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The second phase was in Aihole and Badami (7<sup>th</sup> century).<strong><br />
</strong>Important temples include:<strong> Lad Khan Temple (Aihole), and Meguti Jain Temple, Durga Temple, Huccimalli Gudi Temple at Badami</strong></li>
<li style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The final and mature phase was in Pattadakal and Badami (8<sup>th</sup> century). Famous temples include: <strong>Bhutanatha Temples at Badami, Sangameswara, Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna Temples at Pattadakal</strong></li>
<li style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Chalukya architecture is known for its fusion of nagara and dravida architectural styles</strong></li>
<li style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Pattadakal is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">courtesy- iashelp.com</span></span></strong></li>
</ul></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-42957958813611113252011-12-08T07:19:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:19:48.511-08:00PRATIHARAS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">PRATIHARAS</span></h4><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Pratiharas ruled much of northern India from the 6<sup>th</sup> to the 11<sup>th</sup> centuries CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Also known as Gurjara Pratiharas, they are associated with the Gujjar tribe and are <strong>considered to be Rajputs clans</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The capital city of the Pratiharas were Kannauj and Avanti.</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Pratiharas used Sanskrit, Marwari and Malwi as official languages</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Pratiharas were in continuous conflict with the Rashtrakutas and the Palas for more than two centuries</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Pratiharas are credited with repulsing Arab invasions in western India in the 7<sup>th</sup> and 8<sup>th</sup> centuries CE</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Pratiharas weakened over a period of time, due to having to fight the Palas and Rashtrakutas as well as Arab armies from the west<strong><br />
</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Extent and lineage</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Pratihara dynasty is said to have been founded by Harichandra in the 6<sup>th</sup> century</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Nagabhata I (730-756 CE) was the first important ruler. <strong>He defeated the advancing Arab armies at the Battle of Rajasthan (738 CE)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Vatsaraja (775-805 CE) sought to capture Kannauj, which brought them into conflict with the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. His attempts were unsuccessful</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Nagabhata II (805-833 CE) rebuilt the great Shiva temple at Somnath</strong> which had been earlier destroyed by Junaid of Sind</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Conflict with Arab invaders</strong></span></div><div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1899" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 275px;"><strong><strong><a href="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/KannaujTriangle.png" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="The Rashtrakutas, Pratiharas and Palas were in continuous conflict for over two centuries. The focal point of the conflict was the Kannauj Triangle." class="size-medium wp-image-1899" height="300" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/KannaujTriangle-265x300.png" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="Kannauj Triangle" width="265" /></a></strong></strong><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">The Rashtrakutas, Pratiharas and Palas were in continuous conflict for over two centuries. The focal point of the conflict was the Kannauj Triangle.</div></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Sind region had been captured by Muhammad bin Qasim in 710 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">His successor and Governor of Sind, Junaid, led an invasion into western and northern India in 738 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Junaid was defeated by the Rashtrakutas at Navsari (Gujarat) and by the Pratihara king Nagabhata I at Avanti</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Nagabhata pursued the Arab armies as far as the Indus river ensuring that the Arabs remained on the other side of the Indus</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Pratiharas acted as a buffer against Arab armies from the west for the next two centuries and are credited with checking Arab advances into India</li>
</ul><h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE KANNAUJ TRIANGLE</span></h4><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Rashtrakutas, Palas and Pratiharas were locked in continuous conflict between the 8<sup>th</sup> and 10<sup>th</sup> centuries CE</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>This tripartite struggle was primarily over control of Kannauj and the fertile Gangetic plains around it</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The earliest known reference to the struggle is from the late 8<sup>th</sup> century: Dharmapala defeated the Pratihara king Indraraja and captured Kannauj, only to be defeated by the Pratihara Vatsaraja, who was himself defeated by the Rashtrakuta Dhruva. Dharmapala retrieved Kannauj from the Rashtrakutas, but Kannauj was once again conquered by the Pratihara Nagabhata</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The area around Kannauj, called the Kannauj triangle kept changing hand throughout the tripartite struggle</li>
<li>courtsy iashelp.com</li>
</ul></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-35001857101501731532011-12-08T07:18:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:18:13.904-08:00THE PALAS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Palas ruled Bengal and much of northern India from the 8<sup>th</sup> to the 12<sup>th</sup> centuries CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The capital cities of the Palas were Pataliputra (Bihar) and Gaur (West Bengal)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Palas were in continuous conflict with the Rashtrakutas and the Pratiharas for more than two centuries</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Palas patronized the Buddhist universities at Vikramashila and Nalanda. <strong>The Nalanda University reached its height during the reign of the Palas</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Dharmapala constructed the Somapura Mahavira, the biggest Buddhist Vihara in Indian subcontinent.</strong> The Somapura Mahavira, located at Paharpur (Bangladesh) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1985)</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Extent and lineage</strong></span></div><div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1898" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 310px;"><strong><strong><a href="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/SomapuraMahavihara.JPG" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="The Somapura Mahavihara, built by the Pala emperor Dharmapala, is the largest Buddhist vihara in the Indian subcontinent. It is located in Paharpur, Bangladesh" class="size-medium wp-image-1898" height="225" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/SomapuraMahavihara-300x225.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="Somapura Mahavihara" width="300" /></a></strong></strong><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">The Somapura Mahavihara, built by the Pala emperor Dharmapala, is the largest Buddhist vihara in the Indian subcontinent. It is located in Paharpur, Bangladesh</div></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Pala dynasty was established by Gopala (750-770 CE) who came to power in a democratic election.</strong> This event is said to be the first democratic elections in India since the time of the Mahajanapadas<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Pala kingdom reached its peak under Dharmapala (770-810) and Devapala (810-850)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">At its height, the Pala kingdom extended from Assam in the east to Kandahar in the west, and Punjab in the north to the Deccan in the south</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Literature</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The earliest development of proto-Bangla language was during the Pala reign</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Buddhist texts Charyapada were the earliest form of Bangla language. </strong>The Charyapada are a collection of mystical poems from the Tantric school of Buddhism<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Buddhist teacher Atisha Dipankara Shrijana wrote over 200 books, primarily translations of Sanskrit Buddhist manuscripts into Tibetan<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Sandhyakar Nandi wrote the famous epic poem Ramacharitam in Sanskrit </strong>(c. late 11<sup>th</sup> century). The Ramacharitam simultaneously narrates the story of the Ramayana as well as events in Bengal during the Pala reign in a poem containing 215 verses</li>
</ul><div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">courtsy iashelp.com</span></span></div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-80544259395629929782011-12-08T07:16:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:16:51.408-08:00THE RASHTRAKUTAS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE RASHTRAKUTAS</span></h4><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Rashtrakutas ruled large parts of southern and central India from the 6<sup>th</sup> to the 10<sup>th</sup> centuries CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Rashtrakutas emerged as a power after overthrowing the Chalukya Kiritivarman II in c. 753 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Rashtrakutas were based around the Gulbarga region of modern Karnataka</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The capital city of the Rashtrakutas was Manykheta (Karnataka)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Rashtrakutas were in continuous conflict with the Palas and the Pratiharas for more than two centuries</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Extent and lineage</strong></span></div><div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1897" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 310px;"><strong><strong><a href="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/KailasanathaTemple.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I" class="size-medium wp-image-1897" height="199" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/KailasanathaTemple-300x199.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="Kailasanatha Temple" width="300" /></a></strong></strong><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I</div></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Rashtrakuta dynasty was established by Dantidurga who overthrew the Chalukyas in 753 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">At the height of their power, the Rashtrakutas kingdom included all of Karnataka and Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The most important kings of the Rashtrakutas were Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793 CE), Govinda III (793-814 CE) and Amogavarsha (800-878 CE)</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Administration, economy and society</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Rashtrakutas issued coins in silver and gold</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The various currency denominations were Suvarnas (silver) and Drammas (gold) weighing 65 grains, Kalanju (48 grains), Gadyanaka (96 grains), Kasu (15 grains), Manjati (2.5 grains) and Akkam (1.25 grains)</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Literature</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Kannada literature attained prominence and importance during the reign of the Rashtrakutas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><em>Kavirajamarga</em> by king Amogavarsha is the earliest available literary work in Kannada. </strong>Amoghavarsha also wrote the<em>Prashnottara Ratnamalika</em>, a religious work in Sanskrit<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><em>Adipurana,</em> a life history of the first Jain Tirthankara Rishabadeva in Kannada, was written by Pampa (c. 950 CE).</strong> Pampa also wrote the <em>Vikaramarjuna Vijaya</em>, based on the Mahabharata story. Pampa is recognised as one of the most famous Kannada writers<em><br />
</em></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Another Jain writer, Sri Ponna, wrote the history of the 16<sup>th</sup> Jain Tirthankara Shantinatha, entitled <em>Shantipurana</em>. His other writings in Kannada included <em>Bhuvanaika-Karamabhyudaya, Jinaksaramale</em> and <em>Gataprataigata</em></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Trikrama (c. 915 CE) wrote the <em>Nalachampu, Damayanthi Katha </em>and<em> Madalaschampu</em> in Kannada<em><br />
</em></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Art and Architecture</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora (Maharashtra) was constructed by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (c. 8<sup>th</sup> century CE).</strong> The Kailasanatha Temple was carved out of a single rock, and is known for its vertical excavation i.e. it was carved starting from the top and proceeding downwards. The Kailasantha Temple is considered to be the pinnacle of Rashtrakuta architecture</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Rashtrakutas also built some of the sculptures at the Elephanta Caves near Mumbai</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Other famous Rashtrakuta architecture include the Kasiviswanatha Temple and Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka and the Navalinga Temple at Kuknur, Karnataka</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The architectural style used by the Rashtrakutas was primarily Dravidian</li>
</ul><div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">courtsy iashelp.com</span></span></div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-39214105115595041912011-12-08T07:15:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:15:00.299-08:00THE (LATER) CHOLAS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE (LATER) CHOLAS</span></h4><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Cholas, along with the Cheras and Pandyas, are considered to be among the oldest and longest dynasties in Indian history.</strong> They ruled southern India in the later parts of the first millennium BC (Sangam period), and supposedly in even earlier pre-historical epochs as mentioned in ancient Tamil literature</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>However, this article deals only with the later Cholas</strong>, about whom concrete literary, epigraphical and archaeological evidence has been established. In this article <em>Cholas</em> refers to <em>later Cholas</em></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Cholas ruled large parts of Southern India including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Karnataka from the 9<sup>th</sup> to 13<sup>th</sup> centuries CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The lasting legacies of the Cholas include some of the most important works of Tamil literature and magnificent temples and monuments</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Cholas are also known for their powerful navy with blue-water capabilities, that allowed them to project power as far away as Indonesia</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The capital of the Cholas were Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram</strong></li>
</ul><div class="wp-caption alignright" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 229px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rajendra_map_new.png" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img align="right" alt="" border="0" height="155" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/020410_0110_IndianHisto1.png" style="border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0pt; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0pt; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0pt; border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="219" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">The Chola Empire at its peak under Rajendra Chola (c. 1030 CE)</div></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The heartland of the Chola territory was the fertile Kaveri valley centred around Tanjore</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Cholas came into prominence in the 9<sup>th</sup> century under Vijayalaya Chola (c. 850 CE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Important Chola kings include Parantaka Chola (c. 925 CE), Sundara Chola (c. 950 CE), Rajaraja Chola (c. 985-1014 CE), Rajendra Chola (c. 1012-1044 CE) and Kulothunga Chola (1070-1120 CE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Chola empire stretched from Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishna basin in the north.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Additionally, <strong>large parts of north eastern India and South East Asia were conquered by Rajendra Chola</strong>, and were under Chola suzerainty. <strong>These included the Ganga-Hoogly-Damodar basin, Indo-China (Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam), Burma, Malaysia and Indonesia.</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Rajendra Chola, the most successful Chola emperor, took on titles such as <em>Gangaikonda Cholan </em>and <em>Mudikonda Cholan</em></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">To commemorate his successful campaigns to the Ganges, <strong>Rajendra Chola founded the city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram</strong>, which served as the capital for over 200 years until the dissolution of the Chola empire in the 13<sup>th</sup> century<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Following generations of inter-marriage between the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas (of Vengi), the Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya ascended the Chola throne under the name Kulothunga Chola (1070 CE). The line of Chola rulers following Kulothunga Chola are also known as <em>Chalukya-Cholas</em><strong><br />
</strong></li>
</ul><div class="wp-caption alignright" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 203px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img align="right" alt="" border="0" height="255" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/020410_0110_IndianHisto2.jpg" style="border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0pt; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0pt; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0pt; border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="193" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">The Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjore, built by Rajaraja Chola, is the largest and tallest temple in India. The main Vimana towers over 16 storeys high, and is topped by a single granite stone weighing over 81 tonnes</div></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Chola Empire was the first to bring all of south India under a common government</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The capital of the Cholas was Tanjore, and later Gangaikonda Cholapuram</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Cholas pioneered a system of <strong>highly organised governance where a careful balance was achieved between central control and local independence </strong>in administrative matters</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Every village in the empire was a self-governing unit</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Several villages made up a <em>Korram, </em>several <em>Korrams</em> made up a <em>Valanadu</em>, and several<em>Valanadus</em> made up a <em>Mandalam (</em>i.e. province)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Cholas also pioneered the concept of immediately recording oral orders given by king in written form. <strong>A special official, <em>Tirumandira Olai Nayagan</em>, was tasked specifically with recording these oral orders in palm leaf manuscripts</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Chola empire had extensive trade relations with Sri Vijaya (Indonesia), China (Tang Dynasty) and the Abassid Caliphate (Baghdad)<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Cholas maintained a powerful and well-organised Navy</strong>, that it used for power projection, piracy control and trade convoy escorting <strong><br />
</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Art and Architecture under the Cholas</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The period of the Cholas was an age of continuous improvement and refinement of Dravidian art and architecture</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The most famous aspects of Chola art and architecture includes their exquisite bronze sculptures and massive stone temples</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Brihadeeswarar Temple at Tanjore, built by Rajaraja Chola (c. 1002 CE), is considered to be the pinnacle of Chola architecture. The temple, the largest and tallest in India, is also the first complete granite structure in the world</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><strong>The UNESCO World Heritage Site <em>Great Living Chola Temples</em></strong> consists of three temples constructed by the Cholas:</div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Brihadeeswarar Temple (Tanjore)</strong><span style="color: red;"><strong></strong></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Airavateswarar Temple (Darasuram)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple (Gangaikonda Cholapuram)</strong></li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes, many of which are housed in museums around the world. Among the most famous Chola bronzes is that of <em>Nataraja</em>, depicting Siva in the cosmic dance of creation and destruction</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>The Great Living Chola Temples</strong></span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;">The Great Living Chola Temples are a UNESCO World Heritage Site</div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 139px;"></col><col style="width: 137px;"></col><col style="width: 122px;"></col><col style="width: 217px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Temple</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Location</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Date/Built by</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Brihadeeswarar Temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Tanjore (Tamil Nadu)</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">c. 1006 CE/Rajaraja Chola</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Largest and tallest temple in India</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Served as the royal temple of the Cholas being the site of important royal ceremonies</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Also known as Peruvudaiyar Temple</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Tamil Nadu)</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">c. 1025 CE/Rajendra Chola</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Airavateswarar Temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Darasuram (Tamil Nadu)</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">12<sup>th</sup> century CE/Rajaraja Chola II</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Literature under the Cholas</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Chola period is noted for the <strong>flourishing Tamil literature</strong> during this period<div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1976" style="background-color: #fff5c5; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; float: right; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 310px;"><a href="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/AiravateshwararTemple.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt=" The Airavateswar Temple at Darasuram was built by Rajaraja Chola II. The temple, whose sanctum is in the form of a chariot, is known for the exquisite details of sculptures" class="size-medium wp-image-1976" height="225" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/AiravateshwararTemple-300x225.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="AiravateshwararTemple" width="300" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">The Airavateswar Temple at Darasuram was built by Rajaraja Chola II. The temple, whose sanctum is in the form of a chariot, is known for the exquisite details of sculptures</div></div></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Important epigraphical inscriptions have been found in the various temples constructed during this period</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">The most famous works of literature include</div></li>
<ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><em>Ramavataram</em> by the poet Kamban</strong>, which describes the story of the Ramayana</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><em>Kalingattubarani</em> by Ottakuttan</strong>, which describes the conquest of Kalinga (Orissa) by Kulothunga Chola</li>
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</span></span></div><div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">Courtsy:-iashelp.com</span></span></div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-7862588151712660352011-12-08T07:13:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:13:12.002-08:00THE (LATER) PANDYAS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE (LATER) PANDYAS</span></h4><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, are considered to be among the oldest Indian dynasties</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Pandyas are mentioned as the hosts of the third Tamil Sangam (3<sup>rd</sup> century BC-3<sup>rd</sup> century CE)</strong>, and as hosts of the supposedly even earlier first two Sangams</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">However, this article only deals with the later Pandyas, who rose to prominence in the 13<sup>th</sup> century, and about whom concrete literary, archaeological and epigraphical evidence is available</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Throughout their existence, the capital city of the Pandyas was Madurai</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>After several centuries of submission under the Cholas, the Pandyas rose to prominence under the Maravarman Sundara Pandyan in the 13<sup>th</sup> century (1216-1238 CE). </strong>In 1217 CE, Maravarman Pandyan defeated the Chola monarch Rajaraja III, thereby ending centuries of Chola suzerainty in southern India<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">At its peak, the Pandyan kingdom extended from the Godavari in the north to northern Sri Lanka in the south</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Pandyan kingdom reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1250-1268 CE)</strong> who dissolved the Chola Empire, which had already been in decline</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan was given the title of <em>Pon Veindha Perumal</em></strong>for gold plating the roofs of the Chidambaram Temple and the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam. <strong>He also built a gate at the Srirangam Temple engraving the names of all four dynasties of Tamil Nadu</strong> i.e. Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, recognising the contribution of each</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Pandyan kingdom was disestablished in 1311 following defeat by Malik Kafur, the general of Alla-ud-din-Khilji, </strong>who was on an expedition to subjugate South India.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The city of Madurai passed to the Madurai Sultanate, established in 1335 CE by Sayyid Jalal-ud-din Ahsan. However, the Sultanate itself was dissolved by the rising Vijayanagara Empire in 1375 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Following this, Madurai was ruled by Nayaks, governors of the Vijayanagara Empire. Following the collapse of Vijayanagar in 1646 CE, the Nayaks ruled Madurai independently until the arrival of the British in 1736 CE</li>
</ul></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-4015385870924656052011-12-08T07:12:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:12:13.520-08:00THE (LATER) CHALUKYAS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">This article deals with the later Chalukyas, who ruled south central India including Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra in the 10<sup>th</sup>-12<sup>th</sup> centuries CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">For the earlier Chalukyas who ruled in the 6<sup>th</sup> century from Badami, <a href="http://iashelp.com/2010/01/22/study-materialgeneral-studies-indian-history-10/" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;">see this earlier article</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">The later Chalukyas were divided into two contemporaneous kingdoms:</div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Western Chalukyas who ruled from Kalyani (Karnataka)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Eastern Chalukyas who ruled from Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)</strong></li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Both the Western Chalukyas and Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami.</strong> In a sense they were cousins, but they were in conflict with each other</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Eastern Chalukyas were allied with the Cholas, and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was absorbed into the Chola Empire in the 12<sup>th</sup> century. On the other hand, the Western Chalukyas were bitterly opposed to the Cholas, and the two were in constant conflict for over two centuries</li>
</ul><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #00b050;">WESTERN CHALUKYAS<img align="right" alt="" height="155" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/021110_0244_IndianHisto1.png" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="134" /></span></h6><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Western Chalukyas ruled most of the western Deccan between the 10<sup>th</sup> and 12<sup>th</sup> centuries</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Western Chalukyas came into prominence under Tailapa II after overthrowing the Rashtrakutas in 973 CE.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The capital of the Western Chalukyas was Kalyani (Karnataka). Their territories included most of Karnataka, almost all of Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The most important ruler of the Western Chalukyas was Vikramaditya VI</strong> (1076-1126 CE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Western Chalukyas were in constant conflict with the Cholas over control of the fertile region of Vengi in Andhra Pradesh</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">A series of defeats by the more powerful Cholas gradually weakened the kingdom, with its territory shrinking significantly in the mid 11<sup>th</sup> century (c. 1050 CE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The continuous wars with the Cholas eventually exhausted the Western Chalukyas, and the dynasty was overthrown by feudatories including the Hoysalas in 1190 CE</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Society under the Western Chalukyas</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Western Chalukyas followed the administrative and social set up of the preceding Rashtrakuta kingdom to a large extent</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>They minted punch marked gold coins, called <em>Pagodas</em>,</strong> with Kannada and Nagari legends</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Merchants organised themselves into large guilds that transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars. Powerful guilds included the</div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><em>Manigramam</em> (Cochin)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><em>Nagarattar</em> (Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><em>Anjuvannam</em> (Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><em>Ainnurruvar</em> (Aihole, Karnataka)</strong> – this was the most powerful guild</li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">These trade guilds fiercely protected their trade interests and recorded their achievements in inscriptions known as <em>Prasasti</em></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Trade ties flourished with Magadha, Nepal, Cambodia, Persia, China and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad</strong>.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Important trade items included precious stones like diamond, emeralds, topaz etc and spices such as cardamom, saffron and cloves</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">With the rise of the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas, patronage for Jainism declined. Buddhism had already been in decline in South India since the 8<sup>th</sup> century following the preachings of the Adi Shankara</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Jainism gradually declined and only flourished in two regions: Shravanabelagola and Kadambahalli</strong>, both in Karnataka<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The only places of Buddhist worship that remained were Dambal and Balligavi</strong>, both in Karnataka<strong><br />
</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Literature under the Western Chalukyas</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Western Chalukyas patronised Kannada and Sanskrit literature</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Ranna (c. 980 CE) wrote in Kannada the <em>Saahasabheema Vijayam</em></strong> which narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana, <strong>and the <em>Ajitha Purana</em></strong> which describes the life of the second Jain tirthankara Ajithanatha</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>A unique and native form of Kannada literature called <em>Vachanas</em> developed at this time.</strong> They were written by mystics who expressed their devotion to God in simple language to be understood by the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi and Allama Prabhu are famous among them</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Kashmiri poet Bilhana wrote the Vikramankadeva Charita in Sanskrit, </strong>which recounts the life of Vikaramaditya VI</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara wrote the <em>Mitakshara</em>, a treatise on law</strong>. The composition, which was based on earlier writings, was later translated into English by the British and given currency in the Indian court system</li>
</ul><div class="wp-caption alignright" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 414px;"><a href="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/021110_0244_IndianHisto2.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img align="right" alt="" height="175" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/021110_0244_IndianHisto2.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="404" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi (Karnataka) was built in 1112 CE by Mahadeva, a general in the army of the Western Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya VI</div></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was mainly in the <em>Karnata Dravida</em> style, drawing from the Dravida style</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Western Chalukya architecture formed a link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 7<sup>th</sup>century and the Hoysala architecture of the 12<sup>th</sup>century</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The vimana of their temples is a compromise between the plain style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative details of the Hoysalas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was concentrated around the Tungabhadra region of central Karnataka</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Notable temples include Mahadevi Temple at Itagi, Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti and Kallesvara Temple at Bagali</strong></li>
</ul><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #00b050;">EASTERN CHALUKYAS</span></h6><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Eastern Chalukyas ruled parts of Andhra Pradesh from the 7<sup>th</sup> to the 12<sup>th</sup> centuries CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The capital city was Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), but outlived them by many generations</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Eastern Chalukyas developed as an independent kingdom following the death of Pulakesin II in 642 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Much weaker than their distant cousins and rivals the Western Chalukyas, the Eastern Chalukyas formed a close marital alliance with the Cholas</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The fertile Vengi region of the Eastern Chalukyas was the principal cause of continuous conflict between the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Following generations of intermarriage, the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was merged into the Chola Empire in 1130 CE</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Eastern Chalukyas were instrumental in the development of Telugu literature</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Nannaya Bhatta’s <em>Mahabharata</em> is the oldest available literary work in Telugu</strong> (mid 11<sup>th</sup> century)<strong><br />
</strong></li>
</ul><h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE HOYSALAS<img align="right" alt="" height="155" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/021110_0244_IndianHisto3.png" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="134" /></span></h4><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Hoysalas ruled Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu between the 11<sup>th</sup> and 14<sup>th</sup>centuries</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The capital city of the Hoysalas was Belur, but later moved to Haleibidu</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Hoysalas are noted especially for their magnificent temple architecture</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Hoysalas were also instrumental in encouraging Kannada literature</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Hoysalas rose to prominence under Vishnuvardhana (c. 1120 CE), however were still subordinate to the Western Chalukyas at the time</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Overthrowing the Western Chalukyas, t<strong>he Hoysalas became an independent kingdom under Veera Ballala II</strong> (c. 1187-1193 CE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Among contemporary South Indian kingdoms, the Hoysalas were the last to fall to Muslim invasions from the north. <strong>They resisted invasions by Alla-ud-din-Khilji’s general Malik Kafur until 1343, </strong>and the kingdom was then absorbed into the newly forming Vijayanagara Empire</li>
</ul><div class="wp-caption alignright" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 266px;"><a href="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/021110_0244_IndianHisto4.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img align="right" alt="" height="193" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/021110_0244_IndianHisto4.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="256" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">The Somathapura Temple at Somanathapura (Karnataka) was built in 1268 CE by the Hoysala ruler Narasimha III</div></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Economy, society and administration</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Hoysala economy, society and administration pretty much followed that of its predecessors</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Senior ministers were called <em>Pancha Pradhanas, </em>ministers for foreign affairs were called <em>Sandhivigrahi,</em> chief treasurer <em>Mahabhandari</em>. Chief of army was<em>Dandanayaka</em> and Chief Justice was <em>Dharmidhakari</em></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Administrative divisions included <em>Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana</em> and <em>Desha</em> in descending order of their size.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">An elite and well trained force of <strong>personal bodyguards called <em>Garudas</em>protected the royal family</strong> at all times. Their loyalty was so complete that they committed suicide upon the master’s death. <strong>Hero stones erected in memory of these bodyguards are called <em>Garuda</em> pillars</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Hoysala rulers were mainly Vaishnavites. <strong>Hoysala period is known for the preachings of Ramanujacharya, Basavanna and Madhavacharya</strong>, well known Vaishnava saints</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Literature</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Although Sanskrit remained popular, Kannada literature was particularly favoured by the Hoysalas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">In 1209, Jaina scholar Janna wrote <em>Yashodhacharite</em>, a story of a king who intends to sacrifice two young boys to a local deity</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin, wrote <em>Jagannatha Viajaya</em>, relating the life of Lord Krishna up to his battle with demon Banasura</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Harihara, a Vaishnava, wrote <em>Girijakalyana</em> which describes the marriage of Lord Shiva to Parvati</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">In Sanskrit, <strong>Madhavacharya wrote the <em>Rigbhasya</em></strong> on Brahmasutras, a logical explanation of the Vedas</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Architecture</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Hoysalas are best known for their architecture, especially in building temples</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Hoysala architectural style, called <em>Karnata Dravida</em>, was an offshoot of the Chalukya style, which borrowed from the Dravida style</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">A prominent feature of Hoysala architecture is attention to detail and skilled craftsmanship. This <strong>high level of detail was achieved using soapstone for construction</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Important temples include the <strong>Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 117px;"></col><col style="width: 135px;"></col><col style="width: 136px;"></col><col style="width: 229px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Temple</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Location</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Built by</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Chennakesava Temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Belur (Karnataka)</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Vishnuvardhana (c. 1117 CE)</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Deity is Vishnu</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Unusually large compared to other Hoysala temples</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Hoysaleswara Temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Halebidu (Karnataka)</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Vishnuvardhana</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Deity is Shiva</span><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Famous for extremely articulate and detailed sculptures</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Contains a Garuda pillar in honour of Kuruva Lakshma, bodyguard of Veera Ballala II</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kesava Temple</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Somanathapura (Karnataka)</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Narasimha III (c. 1268 CE)</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Deity is Vishnu</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">courtsy iashelp.com</div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-52593537643419649082011-12-08T07:10:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:10:04.701-08:00EARLY MUSLIM CONQUESTS IN INDIA<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #333399;">EARLY MUSLIM CONQUESTS IN INDIA</span></h4><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Muslim conquests in India started in the 12<sup>th</sup> century. However, periodical raids into India started as early as the 7<sup>th</sup> century</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The earliest Muslim foray into India occurred in 664 CE by Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah, the governor of Khorasan (Iran) under the Ummayad Caliphate</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Invasions into India were carried out from the northwest over a period of centuries by Arabs, Turkic, Mongol and Turco-Mongol peoples</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Impact of Muslim conquests</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The presence of Islamic governments from Spain/Morocco to Indonesia facilitated trade and enabled the establishment of a common legal system</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Ceramic tiles were introduced into India based on architectural designs in Persia and Central Asia</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Blue pottery (famous in Rajasthan) was cultivated by Muslim rulers who imported it in large quantities from China</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Numerous Indian scientific and mathematical advancements, including the numeral system, spread to the rest of the world</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Islamic languages were modified on contact with local languages to produce Urdu,<strong> </strong>which uses Persian words in the Arabic script<strong></strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Conquest during the Rashudin Caliphate</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Rashudin Caliphate was founded immediately after Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. At its height, the Rashudin Caliphate extended from North Africa to Persia, and parts of Afghanistan/Baluchistan</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">During Rashudin Caliphate, significant conquests were made northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, especially areas like Makran and Sindh (in Pakistan)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">These early conquests were primarily an extension of campaigns to conquer and annex the Sassanid Persian empire in the mid seventh century</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Islamic forces first entered Sindh in 644 CE during the reign of Caliph Umar, and established the eastern frontier of the Caliphate as the Makran region in Baluchistan</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Conquest during the Ummayad Caliphate</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Umayyad Caliphate was the second and largest of the four major Caliphates established following Muhammad’s death. It was established in 660 CE. At its height, it extended from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain/Portugal) to northwestern India</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>In 712 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate sent an expedition under Muhammad bin Qasim</strong>, who defeated Raja Dahir of Sindh. He then annexed territory from Karachi to Multan.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>This was the first significant Islamic expansion into traditionally Indian territories</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The main objective of the expedition was the <strong>Sun Mandir at Multan, known as the ‘City of Gold’</strong> due to its wealth</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Qasim was immediately recalled to Baghdad by the Caliph, and the newly acquired territories were then administered by weak governors who only nominally acknowledged Arab authority<strong></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Qasim’s successor, Junaid, was then defeated by a conglomeration of Hindu Rajput clans, including the Pratiharas, in the Battle of Rajasthan (738 CE).</strong> Following this defeat, Islamic expansion into India was stopped at the Indus for the next three centuries<strong></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Multan</strong><strong> became a centre of the Islmaili sect of Islam</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The northern regions comprising the Punjab remained under the control of Hindu kings, while the southern regions comprising Baluchistan, Sindh and Multan passed into Muslim control<strong></strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Mahmud of Ghazni</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Mahmud of Ghazni was the most prominent ruler of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He ruled from 997 CE to 1030 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty was Ghazni in Afghanistan</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">At its height, the Ghaznavid territories included most of Iran and Pakistan and parts of northwestern India</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Mahmud Ghazni was the first ruler to carry the title <em>Sultan</em></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Ghazni’s first expansion into India was his conquest of the Hindu Shahi dynasty which ruled Lahore and parts of Kashmir. <strong>Ghazni defeated and conquered Raja Anandapala of the Shahi dynasty in 1008 CE</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Over the next decade, Ghazni conquered the kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Gwalior and Ujjain</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Muhammad of Ghor</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Muhammad of Ghor (also known as Muhammad Ghori) was the sultan of the Ghorid dynasty centred in Afghanistan. Ghori ruled from 1202 to 1206 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">His capital was the city of Ghor in Afghanistan</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Muhammad Ghori defeated and dissolved the Ghaznavid dynasty in 1186 CE,</strong> thereby establishing the Ghorid dynasty</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He initially ruled as governor under his brother Ghiyas ud-Din Muhammad, and later became king following the latter’s death in 1202</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Ghori extended Islamic rule in India much further east than the earlier Ghaznavid kingdom</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Muhammad Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer at the First Battle of Tarain (Haryana) in 1191 CE</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The next year, <strong>Ghori once again attacked and this time defeated Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 CE</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Following this, Ghori captured the Rajput kingdoms of Saraswati, Samana, Kohram and Hansi. <strong>Ghori also captured Ajmer and Delhi, thereby ending Hindu rule in Delhi</strong>, with Prithviraj Chauhan becoming the last Hindu ruler of Delhi</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Since he had no heirs, Ghori’s kingdom passed into the hands of his Turkic slaves upon his death in 1206 CE. <strong>One of his slaves, Qutbuddin Aybak, took control of Ghori’s Indian territories and founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>courtsy iashelp.com</strong></li>
</ul></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-7545986657917571512011-12-08T07:08:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:08:35.752-08:00DELHI SULTANATE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">DELHI SULTANATE</span></h4><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Delhi Sultanate was a period from the 13<sup>th</sup> to the 16<sup>th</sup> centuries when several Turkic and Afghan dynasties ruled northern India from Delhi</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><strong>The dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate were</strong></div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Mamluk dynasty (1206-1290)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Khilji dynasty (1290-1320)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Lodi dynasty (1451-1526)</li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">The Delhi Sultanate was <strong>established upon the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 CE</strong> and was <strong>absorbed by the newly emerging Mughal Empire in 1526 CE</strong></div></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Mamluk Dynasty</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Also known as the Slave Dynasty</strong>, the Mamluk dynasty was the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and ruled from 1206-1290 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Mamluks were essentially a Turkic people</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>It was established by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak,</strong> a slave and general of Muhammad Ghori, who took over Ghori’s Indian territories following the latter’s death in 1206 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><strong>Important rulers of the Mamluk dynasty include</strong></div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Qutub-ud-din-Aybak (1206-1210 CE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Shams-ud-din-Iltutmish (1211-1236)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Razia Sultana (1236-1240)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban (1266-1287)</li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Qutub Minar (New Delhi) was commissioned by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak in 1193 CE. </strong>At 72.5 m, it is the world’s tallest brick minaret and is one of the earliest and most prominent examples of Indo-Islamic architecture. It is part of the Qutub Complex – a UNESCO World Heritage Site.<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Balban’s tomb is located in Mehrauli, New Delhi</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The <em>Sultan Ghari</em>, also in New Delhi, is the oldest Islamic mausoleum in India.</strong> It was built by Iltutmish for his son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud in 1231 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Razia Sultana was the first female ruler of a Muslim kingdom anywhere in the world</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Khilji Dynasty</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Khiljis were the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. They ruled north and northwestern India 1290-1320 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">They were Turko-Afghan people</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The greatest ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud-din-Khilji (1296-1316 CE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Khilji attacked Chittor in 1303 after hearing of the beauty of queen Padmini, wife of king Rawal Ratan Singh. </strong>This event is the setting of the epic poem Padmavat written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi (in 1540 CE), in the Awadhi language</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Khilji’s plunder of Gujarat in 1297 CE is noted for the loot of the Somnath temple and the destruction of the Sivalingam into pieces.</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Ala-ud-din-Khilji is noted for the first Muslim invasions of southern India.</strong> Khilji’s general, Malik Kafur, conquered Devagiri and Warangal, caused the collapse of the Hoysalas, and went as far south as Madurai, which was occupied for a brief period of time</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Ala-ud-din-Khilji’s most important achievement was repelling repeated Mongol invasions of India between 1294 CE and 1308 CE,</strong>which would inevitably have brought destruction and devastation on a colossal scale</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Tughlaq Dynasty</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Tughlaq dynasty ruled from 1321 to 1394 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">They were of Turkic origin</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyas al-din Tughlaq in 1321 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The most important ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty was Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a renown scholar, was tolerant towards other religions and an innovative administrator. However, his experiments in reforming public administration often failed, earning him much satire</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He was responsible for the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate southwards into the Deccan region<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">In order to strengthen his hold on newly conquered territories in peninsular India, <strong>Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital of the Sultanate from Delhi to Devagiri in Maharashtra (which was renamed Daulatabad). </strong>Due to poor planning and facilities, the capital had to be moved back to Delhi two years later.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Muhammad bin Tughlaq also introduced copper-based token currency, the first such experiment in India.</strong> Although the copper currency was backed by gold and silver in government reserves, the switch was not embraced by the public and the experiment had to be abandoned<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Muhammad bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his cousin Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 CE). <strong>Firoz Shah Tughlaq re-built the top two storeys of the Qutub Minar with white marble</strong>, when the earlier structure was partially destroyed by lightning</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Sayyid Dynasty</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Sayyid dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1414 CE to 1451 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Sayyid’s came to power following a power vacuum induced by <strong>Timur’s invasion and devastation of Delhi in 1398 CE</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Lodi Dynasty</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Lodi dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 CE to 1526</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">They were of Afghan origin</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Lodi dynasty was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi in 1451 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Sikandar Lodi (1489 CE-1517) founded the city of Agra in 1504. </strong>He attacked Gwalior five times but was repulsed each time by Maharaja Mansingh of Gwalior</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty was Ibrahim Lodi (1489 CE-1526).</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Afghan Mughal Babur in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. </strong>With this, the Delhi Sultanate was dissolved and the Mughal Empire was established<strong><br />
</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Legacy of the Delhi Sultanate</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was insulating the Indian subcontinent from the devastation of Mongol invasions in the 13<sup>th</sup> century</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">However, the Delhi Sultanate failed to prevent the sacking of Delhi by Timur (aka Tamerlane). <strong>Timur sacked and pillaged Delhi in 1398 CE, leading to widespread devastation and destruction</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Delhi Sultanate established a network of market centres through which traditional village economies were both exploited and stimulated</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><strong>Agricultural practices of shifting to cash crops (like sugarcane) instead of food crops were encouraged</strong></div></li>
</ul><h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">DECCAN SULTANATES</span></h4><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Deccan Sultanates were five Muslim ruled kingdoms located in the Deccan plateau</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">They ruled south central India from 1527 to 1686</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Deccan Sultanates were established following the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1527</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">The five kingdoms of the Deccan Sultanates were</div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Ahmadnagar (1490-1636)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Bijapur (1490-1686)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Berar (1490-1572)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Golkonda (1518-1687)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Bidar (1528-1619)</strong></li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Deccan Sultanates were generally rivals but <strong>united against the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of Tallikota in 1565</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">An important cultural contribution of the Deccan Sultanates was the <strong>development of Dakhani Urdu</strong> – drawn from Arabic, Persian, Marathi, Kannada and Telugu</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The period is also famous for the development of Deccani miniature paintings</strong>, which flourished in Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golkonda</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Ahmadnagar Sultanate</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was located in northwestern Deccan, between the Gujarat and Bijapur sultanate</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Sultanate was established by Malik Ahmad in 1490, who founded the Nizam Shahi dynasty</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The capital city of the Sultanate was initially Junnar, which was later shifted to Ahmadnagar</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The earliest examples of miniature paintings are found in the manuscript <em>Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi</em> (c. 1565)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">This period is also known for the encyclopaedia <em>Nrisimha Prasada</em> written by Dalapati</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb (during the reign of Shah Jahan) in 1636</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Berar Sultanate</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Berar Sultanate was established by Imad-ul Mulk in 1490</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">It was annexed by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate in 1572</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Bidar Sultanate</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Bidar Sultanate was established by Qasim Barid in 1490</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Bidar was sandwiched between the Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda sultanates</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Bidar was annexed by Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Bijapur Sultanate in 1619</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>An important type of metalwork called Bidri originated in Bidar.</strong> These metalworks were carried out on black metal (mainly zinc) with inlaid designs of silver, brass and copper<strong><br />
</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Bijapur Sultanate</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Bijapur Sultanate was established by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1490, who founded the Adil Shahi dynasty</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Bijapur Sultanate was located in northern Karnataka, with its capital at Bijapur</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Under the Adil Shahi dynasty, Bijapur became an important centre of commerce and culture in India</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Begum Talab was a 234 acre tank constructed by Mohammad Adil Shah in 1651 in memory of Jahan Begum. Underground pipes, encased in masonry supplied water from the tank to the city residents</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Ibrahim Adil Shah II wrote a book of songs in Dakhani urdu called <em>Kitab-i-Navras</em>.</strong> This work contains a number of songs set to different ragas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Bijapur Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1686</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Golconda Sultanate</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Golconda Sultanate was established in 1518 by Qutb-ul-Mulk, who founded the Qutb Shahi dynasty</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Golconda Sultanate was located in northern Andhra Pradesh</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The capital city was Hyderabad</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Qutb Shahi dynasty was responsible for the construction of the Jami Masjid (1518), Charminar (1591) and Mecca Masjid (1617)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Another famous structure from the period is the fort of Golconda</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Shahi dynasty was instrumental in the development of Dakhani urdu</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah wrote the <em>Kulliyat-i-Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah</em> in Dakhani urdu</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Golconda was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1687</li>
</ul></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-22101621385502912382011-12-08T07:02:00.000-08:002011-12-08T07:02:57.010-08:00VARDHANAS AND VAKATAKAS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: blue;"><strong>VAKATAKA DYNASTY</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Vakataka Dynasty ruled parts of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradhesh from the third to fifth century</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Vakatakas are mentioned in the Puranas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Vakataka Dynasty was founded by Vindhyashakti in 250 CE</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Dynasty had two branches: Pravapura-Nandivardhana branch and Vatsagulma branch</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Vakatakas patronised the building of Buddhist viharas and chaityas at the Ajanta Caves</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Important Vakataka rulers</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Vindhayashakti (250-270 CE) was the founder</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Pravarasena I (270-330 CE) expanded the realm from Bundlekhand in the north to present Andhra Pradesh in the south</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Harishena (475-500 CE) expanded the kingdom to include Avanti (Malwa) in the north, Kosala (Chattisgarh) in the east, Nasik in the west and Kuntala (southern Maharashtra) in the south</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The rock cut vihara of Ajanta cave XI was built by Varahadeva, a minister of Harishena</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: blue;"><strong>HARSHAVARDHANA</strong></span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Harshavardhana (540-647 CE) was a ruler who ruled northern India for 41 years</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Vardhana dynasty (although formally not known as such) was founded by Harshavardhana’s father, Prabhakar Vardhana</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Harshavardhana was crowned king in 606 CE, at the age of 16</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Harshavardhna rule is important for the stability it brought to northern India following the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6<sup>th</sup>century</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta, is a biography of emperor Harsha. </strong>The Harshacharita was the first composition by Bana and the first historical work in Sanskrit<strong></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">After Harsha’s death in 647 CE, without any heirs, his empire died with him<strong></strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><strong></strong></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Harsha’s rule</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Harsha established his capital at Kanauj<strong></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The extent of Harsha’s territory included Gujarat in the west, Punjab in the northwest, Magadha in the east and the river Narmada in the south<strong></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Harsha was prevented from conquering south of Narmada by Chalukya king Pulakesi II, who defeated Harsha’s army in 620 CE<strong></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Harsha converted to Buddhism</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Harsha was the author of the Sankrit plays <em>Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika</em></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited Harsha’s kingdom in 636 CE and is a valuable source of information<strong></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Harsha established the fist diplomatic relations between China and India, by sending a mission in 641 CE</strong></li>
</ul><div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><b><br />
</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><b>Courtsy:- iashelp.com</b></span></span></div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-21789783423590931812011-12-08T07:00:00.000-08:002012-01-14T02:14:27.811-08:00THE GUPTA EMPIRE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #7030a0;">THE GUPTA EMPIRE</span></h4>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div>
<div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1199" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 272px;">
<strong><strong><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IndiaGuptaEmpire.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="The Gupta Empire. Territories added by the emperors and the Hun invasions that ultimately destroyed the empire" class="size-medium wp-image-1199" height="300" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/Gupta_empire-262x300.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="Gupta_empire" width="262" /></a></strong></strong><br />
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The Gupta Empire. Territories added by the emperors and the Hun invasions that ultimately destroyed the empire</div>
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<strong></strong></div>
<ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Gupta Empire c.320 CE to c. 550 CE covered much of the Indian subcontinent</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">It was founded in c.320 CE by Sri Gupta</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Important rulers of the Gupta empire were Chandra Gupta I,<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> Samudra Gupta</a> and Chandra Gupta II</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Gupta period is known as the Golden Age of India due to scientific and artistic achievements made possible by the sustained peace and prosperity</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Gupta Empire is also known for the poet Kalidasa, the writing of the Puranas and the astronomers <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Varahamihira and Aryabhata</a></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Empire collapsed in the 6<sup>th</sup> century CE following sustained invasions of Huns from Central Asia</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Chinese travellers Fa Hsien and Yijing visited India during the reign of the Guptas</strong></li>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, exam, general studies, study material, Indian history, free</span></div>
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<span style="color: #00b050;">IMPORTANT GUPTA EMPERORS</span></h6>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>Chandra Gupta I</strong></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Gupta dynasty first rose to eminence under Chandra Gupta I</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He ruled c. 319 CE – c. 335 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Chandra Gupta rose to<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> prominence </a>with his marriage to Kumaradevi, a Licchhavi princess (who were the main power in Magadha)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Chandra Gupta established a realm stretching from<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> Pataliputra to Prayaga</a> (Allahabad)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Gupta Era, which commenced on 26 Feb 320 CE is attributed to the accession of Chandra Gupta I</strong></li>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>Samudra Gupta</strong></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Samudra Gupta succeeded his father Chandra Gupta I</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He ruled c 335 CE – 380 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">His kingdom<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> stretched from the Himalayas </a>in the north to the Narmada in the south and the Brahmaputra in the east to the Yamuna in the west</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Samudra Gupta is known as the Napoleon of India.</strong> He is considered to be the one of the greatest military geniuses in Indian history</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Samudra Gupta granted permission to the Ceylon king Meghavarman to build a Buddhist monastery in Bodh Gaya</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Samudra Gupta performed the Ashvamedha Yaga to underline the importance of his conquests</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Samudra Gupta Prashasti, inscribed on the Asoka Pillar, was authored by Harisena.</strong> It is an important source of information regarding his reign</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Important scholars at his court were Harisena, Vasubandu and Asanga</li>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>Chandra Gupta II</strong></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Chandra Gupta II succeeded the Gupta throne after his father Samudra Gupta</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He ruled 380 CE – 413 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Chandra Gupta expanded the empire westwards by defeating the Western Satraps (Sakas)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Gupta Empire achieved its greatest extent under Chandra Gupta II, stretching up to the Indus in the west</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The court of Chandra Gupta II was graced by the Navaratnas – a group of nine literary experts, including Kalidasa and Varahamira</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien visited India during the reign of Chandra Gupta II</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Chandra Gupta II is also known as Vikramaditya</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Vikram-Samvat calendar marks the coronation of Chandra Gupta II</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The iron pillar near the Qutub Minar (Delhi) was <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">erected by Kumara Gupta</a>, in memory of Chandra Gupta II.</strong> Made of 98% wrought iron, it has stood more than 1600 years without rusting or decomposing<strong><br />
</strong></li>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, exam, general studies, study material, Indian history, free</span></div>
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<span style="color: #00b050;">SOCIETY IN THE GUPTA EMPIRE</span></h6>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The division of society into the four classes was formalized</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">However,<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> marriage rules</a> were elastic</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<strong>There were multiple types of marriages</strong></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Brahma marriage: a duly dowreyed girl given in marriage to a man of the same class</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Prajapatya marriage: marriage without dowry</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Arsa marriage: token price of a cow and bull is given instead of dowry</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Daiva marriage: girl given to priest in lieu of his fees</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Asura marriage</a>: marriage by purchase</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Rakshasa marriage: marriage by capture</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Paisacha marriage: marriage by abduction</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Gandharva marriage: love marriage</li>
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</ul>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, exam, general studies, study material, Indian history, free</span></div>
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<span style="color: #00b050;">CULTURAL LEGACY OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE<div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">
</div>
<div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1200" style="background-color: #fff5c5; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 232px;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:QtubIronPillar.JPG" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="The iron pillar at Delhi erected by Chandra Gupta II has defied corrosion for over 1600 years" class="size-medium wp-image-1200" height="300" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/Iron_pillar-222x300.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="Iron_pillar" width="222" /></a><br />
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The iron pillar at Delhi erected by Chandra Gupta II has defied corrosion for over 1600 years</div>
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<ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Aryabhata came up with the<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> concept of zero</a>, and postulated that the Earth revolves around the Sun, and determined the cause of eclipses</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The works of Kalidasa marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Chess originated in the Gupta period<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Indian numerals</a>, the world’s first base 10 numeral system, originated in the Gupta Empire</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Kama Sutra was written by Vatsayana in the Gupta period</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Varahamihira postulated that moon revolves around the sun</strong></li>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, exam, general studies, study material, Indian history, free</span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>About Aryabhata</strong></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Arybhata (476-550 CE) was the first in a line of great <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">mathematicians-astronomers</a> in India</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>His famous works are the Arbhatiyam and the Arya-Siddhanta</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
His discoveries in mathematics include</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Value and irrationality of Pi</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Area of a triangle, concept of sine</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Sum of series</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Intermediate equations</li>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
His discoveries relating to astronomy include</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Postulated Heliocentrism i.e. planets revolve around the Sun</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Calculated sidereal rotation (24 hrs) and sidereal year (365 days)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Computed earth’s circumference</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Discovered cause of eclipses</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, exam, general studies, study material, Indian history, free</span></div>
<h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="color: #00b050;">THE NAVARATNAS IN VIKRAMADITYA’S COURT</span></h6>
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<table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 197px;"></col><col style="width: 225px;"></col><col style="width: 194px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Person</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Author of</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Famous for</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Dhanvantari</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">One of the world’s first surgeons</span><br />
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<span style="color: #943634;">Discovered antiseptic properties of turmeric and preservative properties of salt</span></div>
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<span style="color: #943634;">Pioneer of plastic surgery</span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kshapanak</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Amarasimha</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Amara-Kosha</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Thesaurus of Sanskrit</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Shanka</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Vetal Bhatt</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Ghat Karpar</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Varahamihira</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Pancha-Siddhantika</span><br />
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<span style="color: #943634;">Brihat-Samhita</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Postulated that the moon revolves around the Sun</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kalidasa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Three plays, four poems including Abhijanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Kumarasambhava, Raghuvamsa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">One of the most famous literary figures in Sanskrit</a></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Courtsy:- iashelp.com</div>
</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-22932070620299479542011-12-08T06:58:00.000-08:002011-12-08T06:58:14.624-08:00MAURYAN EMPIRE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE SUNGAS</span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Sungas ruled Magadha from c. 185 BCE to c. 73 BCE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Sunga Empire was established upon the fall of the Mauryas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The capital of the Sungas were Pataliputra and Vidisha (Besnagar)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>His son, Agnimitra Sunga, was the hero of Kalidasa’s drama Malavikaagnimitra</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed during this period</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Sungas were succeeded by the Kanvas in about 73 BCE</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, civil service, study material, general studies, free, Indian history</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE SATAVAHANAS</span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Satavahanas were a dynasty that ruled central India from c. 230 BCE to c. 220 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Satavahanas are also known as Andhras.</strong> They were among the earliest adopters of Telugu<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The capital cities of the Satavahanas were Kotilingala (Karimnagar), Pune, Paithan</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka (c. 230 – 207 BCE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Other important rulers of the Satavahana dynasty include Satakarni (c. 180 – 124 BCE) and Gautamiputra Satakarni (78 – 106 CE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Satavahana king Hala (c 20 – 24 CE) is famous for compiling the collection of Maharashtri poems called Gaha Sattasai</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Buddhist stupa at Amaravati was built by the Satavahanas c. 200 CE</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, civil service, study material, general studies, free, Indian history</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE INDO-GREEKS</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>About Indo-Greeks</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Indo-Greeks were descendants of Greek armies that had invaded India during and after the reign Alexander the Great</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Indo-Greek kingdom was established by the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius c. 180 BCE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The kingdom roughly covered the region between eastern Afghanistan in the west to Punjab in the east an northern Afghanistan in the north to Sind in the south</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Indo-Greeks combined elements of Greek and Indian languages and religions, producing a fusion of Greek, Hindu and Buddhist practices</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Indo-Greeks were known as Yavanas in Indian literature</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Indo-Greek kingdoms dissolved in about 10 CE following conquests by Indo-Scythians</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Heliodorus was the Ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to the court of Bhaghabadra Sunga.</strong> Heliodorus is famous for erecting the Heliodorus Pillar at Sanchi, in honour of god Vasudeva in about 110 BCE<strong><br />
</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, civil service, study material, general studies, free, Indian history</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Indo-Greek rule</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Alexander the Great invaded Indian in 326 BCE, while retreating left Greek satrapies in the northwest</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Alexander also established Greek colonies in Bactria (central Asia)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">In about c. 180 BCE, following the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded northwest India and established Indo-Greek rule</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Indo-Greek king Menander I (c. 155 – 130 BCE) embraced Buddhism under the sage Nagasena</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Menander I, also known as Milinda, was the most successful Indo-Greek king</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Milinda Panha is a Buddhist text that records a conversation between Menander and his sage Nagasena</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Most coins in Greek India were bilingual – Greek and Pali</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">In addition to traditional Greek religion, the Indo-Greeks practiced Buddhism, Hinduism and Zoroastrianism</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Their rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in India, which later developed into Gandhara art</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, civil service, study material, general studies, free, Indian history</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE INDO-SCYTHIANS</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>About Indo-Scythians</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Indo-Scythians were a branch of Scythians that migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, Afghanistan and northwest India</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Indo-Scythian rule in India was established around c. 200 BCE and ended around 400 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The first ruler was Maues (Moga) while the last was Rudrasimha III (who belonged to the Western Satraps)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Indo-Scythians migrated and invaded India following their nomadic flight from Central Asia due to conflict with Chinese tribes</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Scythian invasions from Central Asia had profound effect not only on India, but also on Bactria, Parthia and Rome</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Sakas were a particular tribe of Indo-Scythians. </strong>However, in Indian literature all Indo-Scythians came to be known as Sakas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Junagarh inscription written in 150 CE is the first major inscription to be written in Sanskrit.</strong> It was written by the Saka ruler Rudra Daman I</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, civil service, study material, general studies, free, Indian history</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Indo-Scythian rule</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Indo-Scythians were Buddhists and followed Indo-Greek practices to a large extent</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Indo-Scythian holdings in India were divided mainly into four regions:</div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Sind</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Gandhara and Punjab</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Northern Satraps (around Mathura)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Western Satraps (around Gujarat)</li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Bimaran Casket, one of the earliest representations of the Buddha, is attributed to Indo-Scythian king Azes II (around 15 BCE)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Mathura Lion Capital (1<sup>st</sup> century CE) is also attributed to the Indo-Scythians</strong></li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, civil service, study material, general studies, free, Indian history</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE INDO-PARTHIANS</span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Indo-Parthians were a branch of Parthians that ruled northwestern India in the first century CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">They ruled present day Afghanistan, Pakistan and Haryana, Punjab and Kashmir from about 12 BCE to about 100 CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Indo-Parthian kingdom was established by Gondophares I</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The empire began to fragment following his death</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Their main religion was Zoroastrianism</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, civil service, study material, general studies, free, Indian history</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">THE KUSHANAS</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>About the Kushanas</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Kushan Empire ruled Bactria, western China and much of northern India in the 1<sup>st</sup> to 3<sup>rd</sup> centuries CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Kushans were an Indo-European people based in Bactria and western China.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">They belonged to the Yuezhi tribal confederation, which was forced out from western China, and moved into Scythian realms in Bactria. Consequently, the Scythians were forced out and migrated southwards to India and westwards towards Parthia and Rome</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Kushan Empire was founded by Kujula Kadphises in about c 60 CE</li>
</ul><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, civil service, study material, general studies, free, Indian history</span></div><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>The rule of Kanishka</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Kanishka was the most important Kushana ruler (127 CE – 151 CE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Kushana Empire reached its maximum extent under Kanishka – it extended from north of the Oxus (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan) to Mathura, including northwest India and Kashmir</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">His main capital was at Peshawar, with supplementary capitals at Taxila, Bagram (Afghanistan) and Mathura</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in about 100 CE in Kashmir</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The advisor of Kanishka was a Buddhist monk called Asvaghosha</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Rabatak inscription at Rabatak in Afghanistan is attributed to Kanishka. </strong>The inscription, written in Bactrian and Greek, gives remarkable clues regarding the lineage of the Kushan dynasty</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Kanishka Stupa at Peshawar was established by Kanishka. <strong>The base of the stupa contained the Kanishka Casket, which contained three bone fragments of the Buddha.</strong> The relics of the Buddha are now in display in Mandalay, while the casket itself is housed at the Peshawar Museum</li>
</ul></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-70852770280338181032011-12-08T06:52:00.000-08:002012-01-14T02:28:48.806-08:00THE MAURYAN EMPIRE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #7030a0;">THE MAURYAN EMPIRE</span></h4>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>Overview</strong></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Mauryan Empire was one of the largest empires to rule India</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">It was established in 321 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya and<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> dissolved in 185 BCE </a>with the death of Bhrihadrata Maurya</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The capital of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Mauryan Empire is known for the Arthasastra by Kautilya (Chanakya), the Rock Edicts of Asoka, and the Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath which today serves as the emblem of India</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Archaeologically, the Mauryan period falls within the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)</li>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, study material, general studies, Indian history, free</span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>Extent of the empire</strong></span></div>
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<strong><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><strong><img alt="The Mauryan Empire at its greatest extent under Asoka" class="size-medium wp-image-1012 " height="248" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/maurya_empire-300x248.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="maurya_empire" width="300" /></strong></a></strong><br />
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The Mauryan Empire at its greatest extent under Asoka</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Mauryan Empire originated from the kingdom of Magadha (modern Bihar, West Bengal)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>At its greatest, the Empire<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> encompassed </a>almost the entire Indian subcontinent and parts of Central Asia</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">It stretched to the north along the Himalayas, to the east into Assam, to the west into Afghanistan, and to the south up to northern Tamil <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Nadu/Kerala</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Empire did not include the Chera, Chola and Pandya kingdoms in the far south. Instead, these kingdoms enjoyed friendly relations with the Mauryan Empire</li>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, study material, general studies, Indian history, free</span></div>
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<span style="color: #00b050;">IMPORTANT PERSONAGES OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE</span></h6>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Chandragupta Maurya</strong></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Born circa 340 BCE, died c. 298 BCE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He was the founder of the Mauryan Empire</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He was known in Greek and Latin accounts as Sandrokyptos, Sandrokottos or Androcottus</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He established the empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty of Magadha under Dhana Nanda</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Chanakya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta while Rakhshasa was his chief advisor</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Starting from Magadha, he expanded westward by defeating the Greek satrapies established by Alexander the Great.</strong>Chandragupta Maurya skillfully<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> exploited the power</a> disruptions in northwestern India caused by Alexander as the latter withdrew into Babylon<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">After his conquests, the Empire stretched from Assam to Afghanistan, from Kashmir to the Deccan</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Chandragupta defeated the <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Seleucus</a> I Nicator, the successor of Alexander in Macedonia.</strong> As part of the agreement reached later, Chandragupta married a daughter of Seleucus and in return gifted 500 war elephants<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Seleucus sent an ambassador to Chandragupta’s court called Megasthenes</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Towards the end of his life, Chandragupta embraced Jainism and migrated south with Acharya Bhadrabahu to Shravanabelgola in Karnataka</strong></li>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Bindusara</strong></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Born c. 320 BCE, died c. 272 BCE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He was the successor to Chandragupta</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He was the son of Chandragupta and the father of Asoka</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He was also known as Amitraghata or Ajathasetru</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He expanded the<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> Mauryan Empire </a>south beyond the Deccan, as far south as Mysore</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">During his reign, the Empire included all of India except Kalinga and the southern kingdoms of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>By religion he was an Ajivaka (a sect of Hinduism)</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Seleucid<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> ambassador </a>to Bindusara’s court was Deimakos</strong></li>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Asoka the Great</strong></span><br />
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<div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1014" style="background-color: #fff5c5; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 310px;">
<span style="color: red;"><strong><strong><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka#Ashoka.27s_proselytism" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Buddhist proselytism under Asoka" class="size-medium wp-image-1014" height="180" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/buddhist_proselytism-300x180.gif" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="buddhist_proselytism" width="300" /></a></strong></strong></span><br />
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<span style="color: red;">Buddhist proselytism under Asoka</span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong></strong></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Born c. 304 BCE, died c. 232 BCE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Successor to Bindusara</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Also known as Devanampriya and Priyadarshin</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Conquered Kalinga and added it to the Mauryan Empire.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Was initially an Ajivaka but later embraced Buddhism after the conquest of Kalinga</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Under Asoka’s reign the<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> Mauryan Empire </a>included all of India except the southern kingdoms of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Contributed immensely to the spread of Buddhism, especially in South-East Asia, Ceylon and Central Asia</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Asoka organized the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in c. 250 BCE.</strong> It was conducted by the monk Mogaliputta-Tissa, who was also the spiritual teacher of Asoka<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He is known for the Asoka Chakra, the Asoka Pillars and the Lion Capital at Sarnath</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt under king Philadelphus sent the ambassador Dionysius to the court of Asoka</strong></li>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Chanakya</strong></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Born c. 350 BCE, died c. 283 BCE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Also known as Kautilya, Vishnugupta</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He was the advisor and trainer of Chandragupta Maurya and was instrumental in the latter’s ascent to power</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He later served as the Prime Minister of the Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta and his son Bindusara</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Author of the Arthasastra and the<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> Nitishastra. </a></strong>The Arthashastra discusses monetary policies, warfare and international relations while the Nitishastra is a treatise on the ideal way of life and philosophy<strong><br />
</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Considered to be the pioneer of economics and political science in the world</li>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, study material, general studies, Indian history, free</span></div>
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<span style="color: #00b050;">ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMY UNDER THE MAURYAS</span></h6>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>Administration</strong></span></div>
<ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The capital of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<strong>The Empire was divided into four provinces</strong></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Tosali (in the east)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Ujjain (in the west)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Taxila (in the north)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Suvarnagiri (in the south)</li>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The King’s representative at the provincial level was a royal prince titled <em>Kumara</em></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Emperor was assisted in the administration by a Council of Ministers called the <em>Mantriparishad</em></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Mauryan Empire also had an extensive and efficient civil service that managed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade</li>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, study material, general studies, Indian history, free</span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>Economy</strong></span></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Chandragupta Maurya introduced a single currency across India</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">International trade with the Greek kingdoms through the Kybher Pass was extensive</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Exports included silk goods, textiles, spices and exotic foods</li>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, study material, general studies, Indian history, free</span></div>
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<span style="color: #00b050;">THE EDICTS OF ASOKA</span></h6>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>About the Edicts</strong></span></div>
<div class="wp-caption alignright" id="attachment_1013" style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px 3px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #333333; float: right; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 10px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 4px; text-align: center; width: 237px;">
<strong><strong><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-left-width: 0px !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-right-width: 0px !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-top-width: 0px !important; color: #333333; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Map of the Edicts of Asoka" class="size-medium wp-image-1013 " height="300" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/edicts_asoka-227x300.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial !important; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px !important; margin-left: 0px !important; margin-right: 0px !important; margin-top: 0px !important; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" title="edicts_asoka" width="227" /></a></strong></strong><br />
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Map of the Edicts of Asoka</div>
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<strong></strong></div>
<ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Edicts of Asoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The inscriptions are found in the form of Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts and assorted inscriptions on<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> boulders and cave</a> walls</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The inscriptions are found throughout the Indian subcontinent</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<strong>The language of the inscriptions is</strong></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Magadhi, using the Brahmi script (in the east)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Sanskrit, using the Kharosthi script (in the west)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">One Edict in Greek</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">One Edict in<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> Greek and Aramaic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<strong>The seven Pillar Edicts of Asoka are located at</strong></div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh – Lion Capital</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh – Lion Capital</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Rampurva, Bihar – Bull and Lion</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Sankassa, Uttar Pradesh – Elephant</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Vaishali, Bihar – Lion Capital</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Lauriya-Areraj and Lauriya-Nandangarh, Bihar – Lion Capital</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Edicts were decodified by British archaeologist James Prinsep in 1820-1830</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Lion Capital at Sarnath is currently used as the national emblem of India</strong>, while India’s national flag uses Asoka’s Chakra</li>
</ul>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, study material, general studies, Indian history, free</span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>Major Rock Edicts</strong></span></div>
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<table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 94px;"></col><col style="width: 471px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Edict number</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Edict description</span></div>
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<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>I</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Prohibition of animal sacrifice</span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">II</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Medical treatment of humans and animals</strong></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>III</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Declares liberality towards Brahmanas and Sramanas</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>IV</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Announces that policy of <em>Dhamma</em> has checked lack of violence and morality</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Declares Bheri Ghosha replaced by <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Dhamma Ghosha</a></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>V</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Mentions appointment of Dhammamahamatas</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>VI</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Mentions Mantri Parishad</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>VII</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Religious tolerance</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>VIII</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Mentions he went to Bodh Gaya</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>IX</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Morality and conduct</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Uselessness of ceremonies</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>X</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Mentions that the king does not desire fame or glory</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">XI</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;"><strong><a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Explains</a> policy of <em>dhamma</em></strong></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>XII</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;">Appeals for tolerance among religious sects</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">XIII</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Mentions Kalinga War</strong></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Partly written in Greek</strong></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">XIV</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Mentions the purpose of the Rock Edicts</strong></span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, study material, general studies, Indian history, free</span></div>
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Minor Rock Edicts</strong></span></div>
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 319px;"></col><col style="width: 319px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Edict</strong></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Description</strong></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #dfd8e8; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Kandahar Rock Edict</strong></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #5f497a;"><strong>Written in Greek and Aramaic</strong></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #5f497a;">Bhabru Inscription</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #5f497a;">Mentions Asoka’s conversion to Buddhism</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #dfd8e8; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #5f497a;">Barabar Inscription</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #5f497a;">Enjoins religious tolerance</span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #5f497a;">Tarai Pillars</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(128, 100, 162); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #5f497a;">Mention Asoka’s respect for Buddhism</span></div>
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<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, study material, general studies, Indian history</span></div>
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Pillar Edicts</strong></span></div>
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<table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 319px;"></col><col style="width: 319px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Edict number</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="middle"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Edict description</strong></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>I</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="middle"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #76923c;">Mentions the social code</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;">II</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="middle"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>Mentions eye donation</strong></span></div>
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<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>III</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="middle"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #76923c;">Mentions<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> soul and sin</a></span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>IV</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="middle"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #76923c;">Mentions Rajukas</span></div>
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<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>V</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="middle"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #76923c;">Mentions animal killing</span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>VI</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="middle"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #76923c;">Mentions welfare of people</span></div>
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<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e6eed5; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #76923c;"><strong>VII</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(155, 187, 89); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;" valign="middle"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: #76923c;">Mentions Dhammamahamatas</span></div>
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<span style="color: #d9d9d9; font-size: 4pt;">Keywords: India, ias, upsc, civil service, study material, general studies, Indian history</span></div>
<h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="color: #00b050;">DECLINE OF THE MAURYA EMPIRE</span></h6>
<ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Mauryan Empire was dissolved in c. 185 BCE</strong> with the<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> assassination</a> of the last ruler Bhrihadrata by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The fall of the Mauryan Empire led to foreign invasions and the establishment of Indo-Greek kingdoms in the northwest</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
Causes of the<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"> Mauryan decline</a> include</div>
</li>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Weak successors to Asoka</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Asoka’s pacifist policies</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Financial crisis</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Centralized government and bureaucracy</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">Courtsy:- iashelp.com</span></span></div>
</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-26916796463242701842011-12-08T06:43:00.000-08:002012-01-14T02:39:57.806-08:00JAINISM IN INDIA<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_784019296"><img src="http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRNkX0G1gof0JLLl39FkGXSfDXf7Dj68lgNq_IOL7am1aHZTVi6" />
</a></h4>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_784019296"><br /></a></div>
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="color: navy;"><a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/jainism-in-india.html" target="_blank">JAINISM IN INDIA</a></span></h4>
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: navy;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>About Jainism</strong></span></span></div>
<ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><span style="color: black;">Claims lineage of 24 <em>Tirthankaras</em></span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><span style="color: black;">Mahavira was the last <em>Trithankara</em> <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/jainism-in-india.html" target="_blank">(6th century BCE)</a></span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><span style="color: black;">Parshavantha is claimed to be the 23rd <em>Trithankara</em> (9th century BCE)</span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><span style="color: black;">Jainism predates Buddhism</span></span></li>
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<span style="color: green;">IMPORTANT PEOPLE OF JAINISM</span></h6>
<ol style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Parshvanatha</strong></span><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He was the 23rd <em>Tirthankara</em></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Lives in Varanasi around 800 BCE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Son of king Ashvasena and queen Vama of Varanasi</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Attained nirvana atop mountain Sammet Shikar, now known as Parasnath Hills</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><span style="color: red;">Vardhamana Mahavira</span></strong><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;">He was the 24th and last <em>Tirthankara</em></span></span></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;">Born 599 BCE in Kshatriyakunda in Bihar</span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;">Father was king Siddharta and mother Queen Tishala</span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;">At age 30 gave up wordly<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/jainism-in-india.html" target="_blank"> possessions </a>and wandered as an ascetic for 12 years</span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;">Attained nirvana 527 BCE at Pawapuri near Rajgir at age 72</span></span></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Acharya Bhadrabahu</strong></span><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;"></span></span><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;">Influential Jain monk who lived 433 BCE – 357 BCE</span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;">He was the spiritual teacher of <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/jainism-in-india.html" target="_blank">Changradgupta Maurya</a></span></span></strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;">Led Chandragupta Maurya and other followers to Karnataka to avoid famine in the north</span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;">The Digambara sect of Jainism follows his teachings</span></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: green;"><span style="color: black;">Composed important Jaina texts like <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/jainism-in-india.html" target="_blank">Upsargahara </a>Stotra and Kalpasutra</span></span></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>
<h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="color: #339966;">THE COUNCILS OF JAINISM</span></h6>
<ol style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>First Council</strong></span><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Held at Pataliputra</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">supervised by Stulabhadra (disciple of Bhadrabahu)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Established the Jain canon Siddhanta, from which the teachings of Svetambaras derived</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong><span style="color: red;">Second Council</span></strong><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Held at Vallabhi (Gujarat)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Supervised by Devardhi Kshama-sramana</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Objective was to collect all <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/jainism-in-india.html" target="_blank">Jain sacred texts</a> and compile them in books</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>
<h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="color: green;">THE SECTS OF JAINISM</span></h6>
<ol style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Digambara</strong></span><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Implies sky-clad</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Digambara monks do not wear clothes</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Digambara ascetics have only two possessions: a<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/jainism-in-india.html" target="_blank"> peacock feather</a> broom and a water gourd</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Believe women cannot attain moksha</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Svetambara</strong></span><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Implies white-clad</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Svetambara <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/jainism-in-india.html" target="_blank">monks </a>wear white clothes</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Do not believe that women cannot attain moksha</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>
<h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="color: green;">IMPORTANT JAIN SITES IN INDIA</span></h6>
<ol style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves</strong></span><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Located near Bhubaneshwar</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Commissioned as quarters for Jain monks by<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/jainism-in-india.html" target="_blank"> Kharavela i</a>n the 2nd century BCE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Caves are situated on two hills Udayagiri and Khandagiri that face each other</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Udayagiri caves house the famous Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Parasnath Hills</strong></span><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>One of the most sacred places of Jainism</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Located near Giridih in Jharkhand</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">20 out of 24 <em>Tirthankaras</em> attained nirvana here, including Parshvanatha</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Shravanabelagola</strong></span><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Houses the 57 foot statue of Gomateshwara Bahubali</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Built around 980 CE by <a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/jainism-in-india.html" target="_blank">Chamundaraya</a> a general of Ganga king Gangaraya</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>The Mahamastakabhisheka is performed every 12 years for the statue</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The last ceremony was held in 2006, next one will be held in 2018</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">It is one of the largest monolith statues in the world (carved out of a single rock)</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>
<h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="color: green;">IMPORTANT JAIN TEMPLES IN INDIA</span></h6>
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;">
<span style="color: green;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<table border="1" bordercolor="#000000" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" id="tgwd" style="border-collapse: collapse; height: 143px; width: 924px;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%"><strong><span style="color: red;">Temple</span></strong></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Location</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%">Dilwara</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%">Rajasthan</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%">Built by Chalukyas 11-13th centuries<br />
Famous for use of marble</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%">Ranakpur</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%">Rajashtan</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%">Built in the 14-15th centuries</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%">Bawangaja</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%">Madhya Pradesh</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%">84 foot statue of first <em>Tirthankara</em> Rishabha (Adinatha)<br />
Erected 12th century CE</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="33%">Sonagiri<br />
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</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-48825622400130199562011-12-08T06:37:00.000-08:002011-12-08T06:47:59.837-08:00BUDDHISM IN INDIA<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<h4 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff7711; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.4em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 8px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">BUDDHISM IN INDIA</span></h4><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>About the Buddha</strong></span></div><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Born in Lumbini (Kapilavastu) in 563 BC</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Belonged to a Shakya Kshatriya clan</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Father: Suddhodhana, Mother: Mahamaya (a princess from Kosala). He was brought up by his aunt Goutami</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Married to Yasodhara, had a son Rahul</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Left home when 29 years old</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Performed <em>Mahabiniskaramana</em> to become a wandering ascetic</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">He joined five ascetics Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi and became their leader</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Achieved enlightenment at 35 at Uruvela (bodh Gaya) on the banks of Niranjana (528 BCE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">His first sermon is called <em>Dharmachakra-pravartana</em></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Died (Parinirvana) at Kusinagar in 483 BC at age 80</li>
</ul><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #00b050;">THE COUNCILS OF BUDDHISM</span></h6><ul style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: circle; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>First Buddhist Council (400 BCE)</strong></span></div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Held soon after the death of the Buddha</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Presided by monk Mahakasyapa</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Held by Magadha king Ajatasatru in Rajagriha</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Objective was to preserve the Buddha’s sayings (suttas) and monastic rules (Vinaya)</li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Second Buddhist Council (4<sup>th</sup> century BCE)</strong></span></div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Held about 100 years after the Buddha’s demise</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Held at Vaisali under the presidentship of Sabakami, convened by King Kalasoka</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Objective was to settle a debate on certain practices of Buddhist monks, esp. in western India</li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Third Buddhist Council (250 BCE)</strong></span></div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Chief monk was Mogaliputta Tissa</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Sent Buddhist missionaries to other countries</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Objective was to purify the Buddhist movement from opportunistic factions</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Origin of Theravada school</strong></li>
</ul></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Fourth Buddhist Councils (1<sup>st</sup> century BCE or CE)</strong></span></div><ul style="list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Possibly held under Theravada school in Tambapanni (Sri Lanka) in the 1<sup>st</sup> century BCE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Committed the Pali Canon to writing</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Another possibly held under Saravastivada tradition, convened by Kanishka around 100 CE in Kashmir under the leadership of monk Vasumitra</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Kanishka’s council translated Abhidharna texts from Prakrit to Sanskrit</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #00b050;">THE SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM</span></h6><ol style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Theravada Buddhism</strong></span></div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Oldest surviving school of Buddhism</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Considered closest to early Buddhism</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Emerged from the Third Buddhist Council held under Asoka at Pataliputra (c. 250 BCE)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Introduced to Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of Asoka, during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Based on the Pali Canon</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand</li>
</ol></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Mahayana Buddhism</strong></span></div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Flourished from the 5<sup>th</sup> century CE onwards</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Patronized by the Gupta dynasty</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Nalanda University was a centre of Mahayana learning</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Practiced today in Japan, China, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam</li>
</ol></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Vajrayana Buddhism</strong></span></div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Involves tantric practices</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Became prominent after the fall of the Gupta dynasty</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Tibetan Buddhism belongs to this tradition</strong></li>
</ol></li>
</ol><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #00b050;">THE TEXTS OF BUDDHISM</span></h6><ol style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Pali Tipitaka (Pali Canon)</strong></span></div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Refers to three main books</div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Vinaya Pitaka: contains disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Sutta Pitaka: contains disclosures ascribed to the Buddha</strong></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Abhidhamma Pitaka: systematic explanations of the Buddha’s teachings</li>
</ol></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Pali Tipitaka is the only one to survive in its original language</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Originated from the First Buddhist Council (c 400 BCE) under the leadership of monk Mahakasyapa</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Used primarily by the Theravada tradition</li>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Mahayana Sutras</strong></span></div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Composed from the 1<sup>st</sup> century CE onwards</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Claim to articulate the Buddha’s more advanced doctrines for followers of the bodhisattva path</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Used by the Mahayana tradition</li>
</ol></li>
</ol><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #00b050;">TIMELINE OF BUDDHISM</span></h6><div><a href="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/112609_1638_IndianHisto16.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" height="227" src="http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/112609_1638_IndianHisto16.png" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-left-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-right-radius: 4px 4px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" width="640" /></a><div style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: -webkit-auto; text-indent: 12px;"></div><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="color: #00b050;">IMPORTANT BUDDHIST SITES IN INDIA</span></h6><h6 style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.496094); color: #ff9933; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 16px; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><div style="color: #333333; font-size: 12px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 12px;">Buddhism’s four holiest sites are Lumbini(Buddha’s birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sarnath (first sermon) and Kusinagara (death)</div><ol style="color: #333333; font-size: 12px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 20px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Lumbini (Nepal)</strong></span></div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Site of the Buddha’s birth</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">In the present-day region of Terai (southern Nepal)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Houses the Mayadevi Temple and Pusakarini or Holy Pond (where the Buddha had his first bath)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1997)</strong></li>
</ol></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Bodh Gaya (Bihar)</strong></span></div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Site of the Buddha’s enlightenment</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Home of the Mahabodhi Temple (constructed 6<sup>th</sup> century CE by the Guptas)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2002)</strong></li>
</ol></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh)</strong></span></div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Site of the Buddha’s first sermon</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Place where the first Sangha came into existence</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Home of Asoka’s famous Sarnath Pillar</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Contains the Dhamek Stupa, Chaukhandi Stupa, Dharmarajika Stupa, Mulagandhakuti Vihara</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Presently on the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List</strong></li>
</ol></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Kusinagara (Uttar Pradesh)</strong></span></div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Site of the Buddha’s death</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Contains the Mahipariniravana Stupa</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Houses the Makutabandhana, cremation site of the Buddha</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Current plans: Maitreya Project to build a 500 ft statue of the Buddha</strong></li>
</ol></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh)</strong></span></div><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 6px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">Houses several Buddhist monuments from 3<sup>rd</sup> century BCE to 12<sup>th</sup> century CE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;">The Great Stupa at Sanchi was commissioned by Asoka in the 3<sup>rd</sup> century BCE</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;"><strong>Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1989)</strong></li>
</ol></li>
</ol></h6><h6 style="font-size: 1.2em; margin-bottom: 4px; margin-left: 12px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #00b050;">IMPORTANT BUDDHIST MONASTERIES IN INDIA</span></h6><div style="color: #333333; font-size: 12px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><table border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><colgroup><col style="width: 185px;"></col><col style="width: 183px;"></col><col style="width: 270px;"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Monastery</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Location</strong></span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Notes</strong></span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Dhankar Gompa</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Himachal Pradesh</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">In the Spiti Valley</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Gandhola Monastery</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Himachal Pradesh</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Chenab river</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Kardang Monastery</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Himachal Pradesh</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Key Monastery</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Himachal Pradesh</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Largest monastery in Spiti Valley</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Lhalung Monastery</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Himachal Pradesh</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">One of the earliest in Spiti Valley</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Tabo Monastery</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Himachal Pradesh</strong></span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Listed by the ASI as a national historic treasure</strong></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Oldest monastery in India</strong></span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Tangyud Monastery</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Himachal Pradesh</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Dharmasala</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Himachal Pradesh</strong></span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Seat of the Tibetan Government in Exile</strong></span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Namdroling Monastery</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Karnataka (near Mysore)</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Largest centre of Nyingmapa sect</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Established by Penor Rinpoche in 1963</span></div></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Rumtek Monastery</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Sikkim</span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;">Seat of the Tibetan Karmapa in exile</span></div></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #efd3d2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Tawang Monastery<br />
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Courtsy :- iashelp.com</strong></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Arunachal Pradesh</strong></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong><br />
</strong></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong><br />
</strong></span></div></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(192, 80, 77); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: initial; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: initial; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px; padding-top: 4px;"><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong>Largest monastery in India</strong></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 4px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 12px;"><span style="color: #943634;"><strong><br />
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</strong></span></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table></div></div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-55191936566092304462011-12-07T23:50:00.000-08:002011-12-07T23:50:07.674-08:00Years of the 20th century in India, Time line apporoach from 1901 to 2000<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">This page is from Wikipedia, Please <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Years_of_the_20th_century_in_India" target="_blank">CLICK HERE </a></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-15734358296182085462011-12-07T04:03:00.000-08:002011-12-07T04:03:05.862-08:00Modern History of India - Important Facts<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">● Muazzam occupied the Mughal throne as Bahadur Shah after his success in the war of succession.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Muazzam, the son of Aurangzeb was called as the ‘Shah Bekhabar’.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Mughal King Farrukh Siyar gratned concession to the English men to trade in Bengal, Gujarat and Hyderabad.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1759 Ali Mohar, the son of Alamgir sat upon the Mughal throne as Shah Alam II.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● After the death of Maratha ruler Shahu, the real power of the State came in the hands of Peshwas.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Nawab Murshid Quli Khan of Bengal transferred his capital to Murshidabad from Dacca.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal transferred his capital to Moongher from Murshidabad.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the middle of the 18th century, the nominal ruler of Mysore was Chika Krishnaraj. The real power of the State lied with the two brothers—Nand Raj and Dev Raj.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1761 Hyder Ali captured Nandraj and became the master of Mysore.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the first Anglo-Mysore war, Hyder Ali badly defeated the English army.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1781 Hyder Ali conqurered Arcot but in 1781 at Porn Novo Sir Eyerkoot defeated him.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Ali Muhammad Khan established the State of Rohilkhand.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The early capital of Rohilkhand was ‘Awala’ which later shifted to Rampur.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Guru Har Gobind Singh constructed the Akaal Takht at Amritsar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Guru Gobind Singh converted the Sikhs into a warring and military group.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1721, the two sects of Sikhism ‘Bandai’ and ‘Tatkhalsa’ merged in one sect ‘Khalsa’. This sect became a headache for the Mughals.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Sikhs were organized in 12 unions or misls which grew in political significance. Later Ranjeet Singh conquered these misls and organized them into Punjab State.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The ruler of the Afghanistan conferred the title of Raja upon Ranjeet Singh and appointed him the Subedar of Lahore.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The treaty of Amritsar was signed between the English and Ranjeet Singh in 1809. As a result the English checked the expansion of Ranjeet Singh towards the region of Sutluj.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● According to the treaty of Amritsar, the English accepted Ranjeet Singh as an independent ruler.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● During first Anglo-Sikh war, the Governor-General of India was Lord Hardinge.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Punjab was ruled by Maharaja Dalip Singh when the Lahore Treaty was signed in 1846 between the Sikhs and the English after the defeat of Sikhs in the first Anglo Sikh war.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● During Sirajudaulla’s time, the English settlement at Calcutta became a resort for the enemies of Nawab and the traitors.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 4th June, 1756 Sirajudaulla invaded and captured the Qasim Bazar factory of English near Murshidabad.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Black hole tragedy as it is known in history, came to light through the letter of Holvell. Some of the historians consider it imaginery.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the contemporary historical works like Sher-a-Mutkherin and Royas-us-Salatin, there is no reference to the Black hole tragedy.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 9th February, 1757, the Ali Nagar Treaty was signed between the English and the Nawab.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● After the war of Plassey, when Sirajudaulla was running away from Murshidabad towards Patna he was captured and killed.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 28 June, 1757, the English declared Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● After victory in Plassey war, the English Company obtained concessions to trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 25 November, 1759, the Bedara war was fought between the English and the Dutch and the Dutch were defeated. The victory helped the English in consolidating their hold on Bengal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Mir Qasim planned friendship with Vansittart to become the Nawab of Bengal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Mir Qasim gave to East India Company, the districts of Vardhman, Midnapur and Chittgaon for the expenditure of the English army.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1764 the joint army of Mir Qasim, Shujauddaulla and Shah Alam fought with the English—the war of Buxar, the English were victorious in this war.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● After the Buxar War, the Allahabad treaty was signed between English and the Mughal King Shah Alam in 1765 AD.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● According to Allahabad Treaty, the districts of Kara and Allahabad were taken away from the Nawab of Oudh and given to Mughal King. The East India Company agreed to pay to the king a pension of Rs. 26 lacs. In lieu the English got Diwani rights in Bengal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● After the death of Mir Jafar, his son Nizamuddaula was enthroned as Nawab of Bengal.<br />
● K. M. Panikkar holds that from 1765 to 1772, the rule of East India Company in Bengal was the ‘rule of dacoits’.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● During Warren Hastings period, the Treasury was transferred by the East India Company to Calcutta from Murshidabad and Calcutta was made the capital.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● During the Governorship of Warren Hastings, in every district of subjugated India one Civil and one Criminal Court was opened.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The cases upto to Rs. 500 were referred to the Civil Court and alone it, the appeal could be made to the Sadar Diwani Adalat.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The District Criminal Court was put in charge of an Indian Officer.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Regulating Act of 1773 established a Supreme Court at Calcutta.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Permanent settlement introduced by Cornwallis brought changes in the land system. Most of the land came in the hands of commercial and rich classes of Calcutta.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Permanent settlement ensured the income of the Government. Besides the cooperation of the new Zamindars was obtained.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the Mahalwari system, land revenues was fixed either through the local Zamindars or their hereditary tax collectors or the Zamindars of the Mahal. Mahal was the collection of villages. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Mahalwari system was known in Punjab as the village system.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Raiyyatwari system was introduced during early 19th century in some regions of Madras and Bombay. The Govt. directly obtained a fixed amount from the peasants.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the Raiyyatwari system, the revenue rate was fixed 45% to 50% of the total produce separately.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Raiyyatwari system had many defects which the Govt. official accepted at the time of a parliamentary inspection for the renewal of the Company’s Charter.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the Fifth and Sixth decades of 19 century, the English invested in large amount to control Indian economy.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The English invested their capital on roads and communications, Railway, Post and Telegraph, Banks and tea gardens.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1830 the Ahoms again rebelled against the English. This time, the English Company adopted a peaceful policy and granted north Assam and some other region to King Purandar Singh.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Raja Teerath Singh of Nanakkalo rebelled against the English with the help of Garo, Khampati and Sinhopo tribes. Soon it took the shape of a mass-movement. In 1833, the English could crust it with superior military force.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1825, the Assam Rifles rebelled against the English.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1838, the Indian troops stationed at Sholapur rebelled due to non-payment of the full allowances.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1850 the Gobind Garh regiment rebelled.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 1 January, 1857, the use of British made Enfield Rifles was started in India. In the cartridges of this Rifle, the fat of cows and pigs were used.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In March 1857, the soldiers of Bairakpur Cantt refused to use the fat cartridges.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 2 May, 1857, the Oudh Regiment of Lucknow too refused to use these cartridges. As a result, the Oudh regiment was disbanded.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● To the soldiers of Meerut who had refused to use the fat cartridges, an English military officer—Carr Michael Smith issued the jail punishment of 5 years.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 10 May, 1857, a section of the infantry and cavalry of Merrut rebelled at about 5 P.M.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The rebels marched to Delhi, captured the city and declared Bahadurshah the emperor of India. Bahadurshah assumed the leadership of revolt in Delhi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● During this rebellion, Nana Saheb established his suzeranity over Kanpur and declared himself the Peshwa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In Bundelkhand Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi assumed the leadership of the revolt.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In Bihar, the zamindar of Jagdishpur, named Kunwar Singh led the revolt.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 28 May, 1857, the soldiers of Nasirabad Cantt in Rajasthan, rebelled.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Kota and Adva were the main centres of revolt in Rajasthan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Central India, Tantya Tope led the revolt.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In U.P. the importnat centres of revolution were Jhansi, Kanpur, Bareilly, Meerut, Lucknow, Aligarh, Mathura and Agra.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Bareilly rebellion was led by Batakhs Khan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Commissioner of Oudh, Henry Laurrence died of a blast on 4th July, 1857.<br />
● While suppressing the revolt, the English officer Neil buried the dead Brahmans and burnt the dead Muslims.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In March 1858, under the leadership of Kunwar Singh, the rebels captured Azamgarh.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● While marching towards Benaras from Azamgarh, there was an encounter between Kunwar <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Singh and the English officer Lord Mark in which Lord Mark had to run away to save his life.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur was the only leader to have died under the banner of freedom.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 14 December, 1857, the English army blasted Kashmiri Gate of Delhi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In November 1857 the rebels defeated the English General Windaham near Kanpur.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Vinayak Damodar Saverker was the first to name the rebellion of 1857 as the first war of Indian independence.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● According to Sir Seeley, the rebellion of 1857 was fully a national revolt conducted by selfish soldiers.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Sir John Lawrence, P. E. Roberts and V. A. Smith have called it a Sepoy Mutiny.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● According to V. A. Smith, the rebellion of 1857 was purely a sepoy mutiny which fully reflected the indiscipline of Indian soldiers and the foolishness of English military officers.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● According to Sir James Outtram, the revolt of 1857 was the result of a conspiracy of the Muslims who desired to fulfill their self-interest on the strength of the Hindus.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Ashok Mehta in his book, ‘The Great Revolt’, has attempted to prove that it was a national revolt.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Pattabhi Sita Ramaiyya takes it to be the first war of Indian independence.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● After crushing the revolt of 1857, they constituted an India Council and abolished the Board of Directors. There were 15 members in the India Council and a Secretary of State for India.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● After the revolt, Lord Canning announced the Declaration of the Queen at a Durbar held at Allahabad. He called it, ‘the Magna Carta of Indian people’.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the Declaration of the Queen, the policy of expansion of the political limits came to an end.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The rebels responsible for the murder of Englishmen were punished. All others were pardoned.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The objective of Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramkirshna Mission and the Theosophical society etc. was to herald a renaissance in India.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Brahmo Samaj was founded in Calcutta by Raja Ram Mohan Roy on 20 August, 1828.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Raja Ram Mohan Roy always advocated the appointment of Indians on high govt. posts. He played a major role in the abolition of Sati system.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● After the death of Raja Ram Mohan Roy on 20 August, 1833, Devendara Nath Tagore assumed the leadership of the Brahmo Samaj.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Aadi Brahmo Samaj was established by Devendra Nath Thakur.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Bhartiya Brahmo Samaj was founded by Keshav Chandra Sen.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The principles of Brahmo Samaj helped immensely in the birth and Spread Indian nationalism.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Raja Ram Mohan Roy established Vedant College, English School and Hindu College at Calcutta.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the advocate of English Education and he thought English to be the vehicle of progress.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● It was due to the effort of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, that the restriction upon the newspapers were lifted.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1819, at Maharashtra, Prarthna Sabha was founded. It came to an end due to its limited scope.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1867 Atma Ram Pandurang established Prarthna Samaj. M. G. Ranade, R. G. Bhandarkar and Narayan Chandrawarkar were the prominent members of this Samaj.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Dayanand Saraswati left his house at the age of 21. As a Brahmachari Sadhu, he travelled to different places in India.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Dayanand Saraswati started the propagation of his religion from Agra.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1874, he wrote his famous book Satyarth Prakash.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 10 April, 1875 he founded Arya Samaj at Bombay.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Totapuri, a Vedantic sadhu taught Vedant Sadhna to Dayananda.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Ramkrishna Paramhans was born in 1836 in a poor Brahman family of Hoogly district of Bengal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Swami Vivekanand was the most devoted disciple of Swami Ramkrishna Paramhans.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Ramkrishna Pramhans did not establish any Ashram or sect.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1893 in the All Religion Conference at Chicago Vivekanand impressed everyone, and started a Vedant Samaj there.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1896 Vivekanand established Ramkrishna Mission.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the last years of the third decade of the 19th century, the young Bengal movement was led by an Englishman named Henry William Derozio.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 7 September, 1875 in New York, U.S.A. Madame H.P. Blatavesky (Russian) and Col. H. S. Alcott (American) founded the Theosophical Society.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Mrs. Annie Besant, an Irish lady was a very active member of Theosophical Society in India.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Due to the efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, in 1856, the Widow Remarriage Act was legislated.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The slogan of ‘Inkalab Zindabad’ was given by Mohammad Iqbal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Sir Saiyyad Ahmad Khan founded the Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh in 1877 which later became known as Aligarh Muslim University.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Haji Shariatullah was the initiator of Faryaz movement.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In Maharashtra the Bharat Sewak Samaj was started by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1922 Amrit Lal Viththal Das established the Bheel Sewa Mandal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Jyoti Ba Phule was the champion of widowremarriage in Maharashtra.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1911 Narayan Maltar Joshi organised the Social Service League, a society to solve the social problems. He was assisted by some educated Indians.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Avanindra Nath Thakur founded the society known as—The Indian Society of Oriental Art.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the 19th century, the famous Bengali author Bankim Chandra Chatterjee composed the song— Vande Matram.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1875, Sisir Kumar Ghose founded the India League.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Indian Association founded by Surendra Nath Banerjee was replaced by the Indian League in 1876.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The credit for founding the Indian National Congress in 1885 goes to an English officer, Allen Octavian Hume.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The first Conference of the Indian National Congress was held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay under the chairmanship of W. C. Banerjee.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Bal Gangadhar Tilak started Ganesh Mahotsav in 1893 and Shivaji Samaroh in 1895.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Pandit Jugal Kishore published the first newspaper of India—Udant Martand. It was a paper which gave top priority to Indian interests.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● During Lord Curzon’s time in 1905, Bengal was divided.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1911, in Lord Hardinge’s time, the partition of Bengal was cancelled.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajeet Singh were exiled to Burma in 1907.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1911 the capital of India was shifted to Delhi from Calcutta.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On Nov. 1913, the Ghadar Party was founded at Sanfransisco city of America by the great revolutionary of Punjab named Lala Hardayal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Kashi Ram and Hardayal were the active members of the Ghadar Party.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1906, Agha Khan founded the All India Muslim League.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1916, a pact was signed between Muslim League and Congress which is known in history as the Lucknow Pact.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1916 Bal Gangadhar Tilak established the Home Rule League of India.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● After Lucknow Pact, Congress and League presented the plan of political reforms based on separate electoral regions. This pact led to an increase in communalism.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1914 Annie Besant brought out a newspaper in English named ‘New India’.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Gandhiji established the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 30 March, 1919, Satyagraha Day was observed in whole of India. The Satyagraha was peaceful at all places except Punjab and Delhi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Saifuddin, the leaders of the Punjab Satyagraha were imprisoned. In protest, a meeting was organized at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar . The people who assembled here were gunned down. This is known as ‘Jalhianwalla bagh Massacre’ of April 1919.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● After the world war I, the Indian Muslims were excited due to the treatment meted out to Caliph by the British in Turkey. In 1919 they started the Khilafat movement under the leadership of Maulana Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Congress joined the Muslims in Khilafat movement. On 31 August, 1919, the Khilafat Day was observed.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Mahatma Gandhi launched the Non-cooperation Mass Movement in 1920-21. But violence broke out at Chauri Chaura then in Gorakhpur district which saddened Gandhiji. In February 1922 he announced the closure of the movement.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In March 1922 Motilal Nehru and Deshbandhu Chitranjan Das established the Swaraj Party.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the elections of 1923 the Swaraj Party scored 40 seats out of 148.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1927 the Bardoli Satyagraha was conducted by Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1928 under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon a Commission came to India to inspect the administrative work. The Indians boycotted it as no Indian was a member of the Commission. In March 1928 the Commission went back.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the 1929 Lahore Congress session held under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the meaning of Swaraj was declared as total independence.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1930 Gandhiji broke the Salt laws by his Dandi March and he started the Civil Disobedience movement.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1930, the Congress boycotted the first Round Table Conference.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1931, after Gandhi-Irwin pact Gandhiji went to attend the second Round Table Conference along with the members of Muslim League.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the third Round table conference in 1932, Congress did not send any representative. Only 46 members went to participate under different categories.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The meeting of the Executive of Congress held on 1 January, 1932 decided to again start the Civil Disobedience Movement due to the completely negative attitude of the Government.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald declared the communal award on 16 August, 1932.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 25 September, 1932, the Poona Pact was signed. Common agreement was made on two conditions for preparing the electoral regions. The representative of the Depressed classes was B.R. Ambedkar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1932 Gandhiji founded the Harijan Sewak Sangh for the uplift of the Harijans.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 8 May, 1933 Gandhiji declared the programme of 21 days fast for his self-purification.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Gandhiji began ‘Individual Satyagraha and Civil Disobedience on 1 August, 1933.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Government of India Act of 1935 had 312 articles and 19 enclosures.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1935, the British provinces were 11 e.g., Madras, Bombay, Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Orissa, Central Provinces, Assam, North West Frontier Provinces, United Provinces and Sindh.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Government of India Act of 1935, the subjects were divided into three departments—Federal, Provincial and Concurrent.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● This Act divided the British provinces of India in two categories. 11 were the provinces under the Governor and 5 provinces were under Lieutenant Commissioners.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Govt. of India Act, 1935, proposed Federal system and Provincial autonomy. The plan of Federal system could not be implemented. The elections for the Provincial legislative Councils were held in the January-February of 1937.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Congress won majority in 5 provinces—Madras, United Provinces, Central Provinces, Bihar and Orissa in the general election of 1937.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In Punjab, the Unionist Party and Muslim League jointly formed the Government. This Government worked without any obstruction till 1947.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In Bengal the Krishak Praja Party and the Muslim League jointly formed the Government. Its Cabinet worked till 14 August, 1947. Sikandar Hayaat Khan was the head of this Government.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Congress Cabinets worked from 1937 to 1939.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1934, the members of Congress Executive, Acharya Narendra Dev, Jai Prakash and Achyut Patvardhan organized the Congress Socialist Party.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In the Haripura session of the Congress (1938), S. C. Bose was unanimously elected the President.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Subhash Chandra Bose organized a National Planning Committee.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1939 Bose was relected Congress President defeating Gandhi’s candidate P. Sitaramayya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In April 1939, Subhash Chandra Bose resigned from the post of the President and started a militant party known as Forward Block.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1939, Jawaharlal Nehru became the President of the Tribal Conference of Indian States.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In 1933, a Muslim student named Choudhary Rahmat Ali studying in England proposed the formation of a separate Muslim State and called it Pakistan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 24th March, 1940, in the Lahore Conference of the Muslim League, the Pakistan proposal was passed.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Lord Linlithgo presented the August proposal before the Congress on 8 August, 1940 for getting cooperation during the war.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Individual Satyagraha was started from 17 October, 1940. Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first Satyagrahi. Gandhiji postponed it on 17 December, 1940.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● It was restarted on 5 January, 1941. During this period more than 20 thousand people were arrested.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Cripps Mission visited India in 1942. It was onemember Commission and only Sir Strafford Cripps was the member.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Congress and the League, both rejected the Cripps Proposals.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Quit India movement resolution was passed on 14 July, 1942 in the Executive of the Congress Session held at Wardha. It was reaffirmed on 8 August, 1942.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The interim government of free India was organized on 21 October, 1943 by Subhash Chandra Bose in Singapore.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● 21 Indian political leaders were invited to attend a Conference at Simla in June 1945. It ended in failure.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In December 1945, the General Elections were held in India. The Congress received the majority in 6 provinces.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 18 February, 1946, the non Commissioned officers and Naval soldiers of the Royal Indian Navy who were called Rattings, began a militant revolt at Bombay.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In order to remove the Constitutional crisis the British Government sent the Cabinet Mission to India.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● It came on 29 March, 1946 to New Delhi and it declared its proposals.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Muslim League observed the Direct Action Day on 16 August 1946.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Interim Government of India was organized under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru. The Cabinet took oath on 2nd September, 1946.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Constituent Assembly first met under the chairmanship of Dr. Rajendra Prasad on 6th December, 1946.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● Atlee declared on 20 February, 1947 that the English would leave India after transferring the power to responsible people before June 1948.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● The Mountbatten Plan of 3 June, 1947 was mainly the Plan of partition. It was agreed upon by the Executive of the Indian National Congress on 14-15 June in a meeting at Delhi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● In July 1947, the Indian Independence Act was passed by the British Parliament.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● India became independent on 15 August, 1947.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 26 January, 1950, the state of Hyderabad merged in the Indian Federation.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 20 April 1954, the Panchsheel Pact was signed between India and China.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
● On 20 October, 1962 China invaded upon India. Soon it occupied Assam Valley and Laddakh. On 21 November, 1962, China declared one sided ceasefire.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-52746510696838162012011-12-07T04:00:00.000-08:002012-01-14T02:54:37.139-08:00Previous Year Papers for UGC NET History<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b style="font-family: arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/previous-year-papers-for-ugc-net.html" target="_blank"> Dec 2010 </a> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1083633168"> </a></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><a href="http://ugcnetonline.in/question_papers/dec10_paper-II/D-06-10.pdf" target="_blank">Paper II</a> <a href="http://ugcnetonline.in/question_papers/dec10_Paper-III/D-06-10.pdf" target="_blank"> Paper III</a></span></div>
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<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/previous-year-papers-for-ugc-net.html" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="background-color: #fdf5ea; text-align: -webkit-center;">June 2010</span></span> </a> <a href="http://ugcnetonline.in/june2010_p-II/J-0610.pdf" target="_blank"> Paper II</a> <a href="http://ugcnetonline.in/june2010_p-III/J-0610.pdf" target="_blank"> Paper III</a></div>
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<a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/previous-year-papers-for-ugc-net.html" target="_blank">June 2009</a> <a href="http://ugcnetonline.in/question_papers_june2009.php" target="_blank"> Paper II</a> <a href="http://ugcnetonline.in/ugc_exampaper_june2009/J%200609%20PAPER%20III.pdf" target="_blank"> Paper III</a></div>
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<b style="font-family: arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><a href="http://ugcinhistory.blogspot.com/2011/12/previous-year-papers-for-ugc-net.html" target="_blank"> December 2009 </a> <a href="http://www.ugcnetonline.in/pdf2/D-0609%20(History).pdf" target="_blank">Paper II</a> <a href="http://www.ugcnetonline.in/pdf3/D-0609%20History.pdf" target="_blank"> Paper III</a></b></div>
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</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-63231083622398261372011-12-06T23:58:00.000-08:002011-12-06T23:58:26.724-08:00Chronology of some important Era<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Swayambhuva Manu 29,000 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Veda (early stages) 23,720 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Samhita (Taitiriya) 22,000 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Manu Chakshushu 17,500 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">King Pruthu 16,050 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Manu Vaivasvata 14,000 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Indra-Skanda dialogue (Mahabharat) 13,000 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Glaciation period 8,000 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Dasharadnya War 7,000 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Ramayana 5,500 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Orion period 4,000 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Greeks separate 4,000 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Rajatarangini begins 3,450 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Gonanda-I of Kashmir 3,238 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Mahabharata 3,138 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Veda (last stages) 3,100 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Saptarsi era begins 3,076 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Saraswati-Sindhu Culture 3,000 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Gautam Siddharta born 1,887 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Gautam Siddharta Nirvana 1,807 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Mahaveer Jain born 1,862 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Chandragupta Maurya 1,534 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Ashoka Maurya 1,482 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Ashoka Gonanda 1,448 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Kanishka 1,294 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Kumarila Bhatta 557 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Vruddha Garga 550 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Aadi Shankaracharya born 509 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Harsha Vikramaditya 457 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Shatkarani Gautamiputra 433 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Chandragupta Gupta 327 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Shakari Vikramaditya 57 B.C.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Shalivahan 78 A.D.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Huen-Tsang 625 A.D.</span><br style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: #e7e7ec; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, 'trebuchet ms', sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Kalhana (Kashmiri historian) 1,148 A.D</span></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-60286811539680860822011-12-06T23:47:00.000-08:002011-12-06T23:47:11.056-08:00Indian History on Wikipedia<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><b style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Ancient India</b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Prehistoric India</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;" title="Vedic period">Vedic India</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; padding-left: 1em;"><br />
</span><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Historical Vedic religion">Religion</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varna_%28Hinduism%29" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Society</a>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanapadas" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></i></small><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryan Period</a><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_India#Ancient_and_Medieval_Characteristics" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Economic history of India">Economy</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoka#Global_Spread_of_Buddhism" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Ashoka">Spread of Buddhism</a>,</small><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanakya" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_India#Contacts_with_the_Hellenistic_world" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Ancient India">Hellenic Contacts</a></small><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Age_of_India" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;" title="Golden Age of India">The Golden Age</a><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">Discoveries</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Aryabhata">Aryabhata</a>,</small><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayana" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a><br />
</small><b style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Medieval India</b><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdoms_of_India" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;" title="Middle Kingdoms of India">The Classical Age</a><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_art" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Indian art">Art</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Hindu philosophy">Philosophy</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire_Literature" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Vijayanagara Empire Literature">Literature</a></small><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_India" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;" title="Islam in India">Islam in India</a><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism_in_India" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Sufism in India">Advent of Sufism</a>,</small><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_classical_music" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Hindustani classical music">Hindustani Music</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru_Nanak" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a></small><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_India" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;" title="Mughal India">Mughal India</a><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecture" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Mughal architecture">Architecture</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughlai_cuisine" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Mughlai cuisine">Cuisine</a>,</small><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansabdar" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Mansabdar">Mansabdari</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maratha_Confederacy" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Maratha Confederacy">Maratha Confederacy</a><br />
</small><b style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Modern India</b><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;" title="Company rule in India">Company Rule</a><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamindar" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Zamindar">Zamindari system</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Hastings" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Warren Hastings">Warren Hastings</a>,</small><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_rule_in_India#Post_and_telegraph" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Company rule in India">Post & Telegraph</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">1857</a></small><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;" title="British Raj">British Raj</a><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Hindu reform movements">Hindu reforms</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famines,_epidemics,_and_public_health_in_the_British_Raj" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Famines, epidemics, and public health in the British Raj">Famines</a>,</small><small style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Indian independence movement">Independence struggle</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhi" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="Gandhi">Gandhi</a></small></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-7413756386888529022011-12-06T23:37:00.000-08:002011-12-06T23:37:21.136-08:00The Guptas: Kings<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">Bodhisatwa with a Lotus in Hand, a Cave Painting in Ajanta<br />
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</div><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Contemporaries of Guptas'</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Northern India was a patchwork of minor states in the third century AD.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The kingdom of the Nagas was an example of one of the Kushan kingly states. Its power rested mainly in Vidisa, Kantipuri, Mathura and Padmavati. The most famous of its rulers were Sisha, Bhogin, and Sada-chandra Chandramsa, while the Ahicchatra rulers were Bhadraghosa, Suryamitra, Phalgunimitra, Agnimitra, and Brihatsvatimitra.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Coins have found dating to the three centuries of the first millennium AD that prove the existence of Achyuttra, who was defeated by Samudragupta, the second of the Gupta kings.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Ayodhya rulers were Dhandeva, Vishakhadeva, Ushyamitra, Satyamitra, Ayumitra, and Sanghmitra, but there is some dispute about the founder, Vindhyasakti or Paravarsena, who performed four horse sacrifices and adopted the title of 'samrat' in the Vakatakas. He was succeeded as king by his son, Rudrasena, who was defeated by Samudragupta.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Maukharis kingdom, with its ruler, King Sunderverman, was based in Oudh. He constructed sacrificial pillars.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">In the Kaushambi kingdom the rulers were Sudeva, Brihatsvamitra, Asvaghosa, Agnimitra, Devamitra, Varunmitra, Jyeshthmitra, and Partapatimitra. They minted coins which carried their likenesses.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Arjunayan kingdom was located in modern Bharatpur and Alwar states in Rajasthan. It was defeated by the Guptas.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Yahudey kingdom was located in East Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Rajasthan, which in turn was also defeated by the Guptas.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Malava kingdom was located in Punjab at the time of Alexander's invasion but later on the Malavas settled in Rajasthan and made Malavnagar, near Jaipur, their capital. They defeated the Sakas and the Mankhari Senapati, but were then defeated by the Guptas.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Licchavis, or Sibis, possessed large numbers of infantry and were a powerful force at the time of Alexander's invasion, ruling Rajasthan near Chitod, with a capital at Madhyamika. The Licchavi state was known to be a powerful one at the time which witnessed the rise of the Guptas (AD 240-320). It had been a republic even from the time of Buddha, around eight hundred years before.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The rulers of the Gupta dynasty itself were Srigupta, Ghatokacha, Chandra Gupta I. The last was responsible for creating the empire which was then ruled by his descendants.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">The classical age of the Guptas (AD 320-550)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The age of the Guptas, or the Classical Age, refers to the period when most of northern India was reunited under the Gupta empire. All kingdoms large and small fell under the sway of the Guptas. Their introduced beautiful gold coins, became associated with beauty, art, Hindu deities (like Durga, Shiva, etc), and Sanskrit literature of that period. Religious toleration and freedom of worship speaks volumes about their approach to governing the many peoples who came under their authority. Kamasutra was created during this period. The great Kalidas(literature) and Aryabhatta(astronomy) lived in this era. The great writings of Kalidasa include Ritusamhara and Meghauta in Sanskrit literature at its highest quality. It has been described as a Golden Age for its relative peace, law and order, and extensive achievements during this period. This is generally known as Hindu culture with all its variety, contradiction and synthesis.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.indiabuzzing.com/wp-content/uploads/golden-age-of-india300-600ad-gupta-dynasty2.jpeg" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.indiabuzzing.com/wp-content/uploads/golden-age-of-india300-600ad-gupta-dynasty2.jpeg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 246px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 180px;" /></a><span class="pkey" style="font-size: 11px;"><span class="inlinetitle">Aryabhata</span>, also Aryabhatta (476-550?), Hindu astronomer and mathematician, born in Pātaliputra (modern Patna, India). He was known to the Arabs as Arjehir, and his writings had considerable influence on Arabic science. Aryabhata held that the earth rotates on its axis, and he gave the correct explanation of eclipses of the sun and the moon. In mathematics he solved the quadratic equation, although many of his geometric formulas were incorrect. His only extant work is the <i>Aryabhatiya,</i> a series of astronomical and mathematical rules and propositions, written in Sanskrit verse.</span></div><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Art and architecture (fourth-seventh centuries AD)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The enormous wealth of imperial territory under the Guptas had led to cultural achievements in the arts and architecture. According to historians, in architecture, sculpture, and painting and in other branches of art, the Gupta era is one of the most creative periods of Indian History. During this period, 'Sarnath' became known as a school par excellence in the Buddhist art. Some of the most beautiful images of Buddha are products of this school. The sculpture of Buddha giving his first sermon in the Deer Park is one of the best from Sarnath. Besides this, the Buddhist pantheon includes Indra, Surya, Yakshas, Yakshis, Dwarapalas, and also Mithun couples, winged horses and mythical animals in Hinayana stupas and viharas as at Sanchi, Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Bhaja, Karle Bedse, Pitalkhoda, Bodhisatva and others. In Mahayana, monuments such as those at Ajanta, Ellora, Aurangabad, Karle, Bedsa, Pitalkhoda and Kanheri are known to be amongst the very best historical monuments.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">It was a period when Hinduism was the official religion of the empire. Consequently the era was also inspired by innumerable images of popular Hindu gods and goddesses, and those, including Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, Lord Krishna, Surya and Durga, were worshiped in this period.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">A colossal image of Lord Vishnu in the Udaigiri caves in Madhya Pradesh house, and other statues of this period found in various temples and museums, are indicative of various dimensions of early Hindu art, sculpture which has been created with great skill.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.ilikemyschool.com/indianhistory/IMAGES/guptas.jpg" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.ilikemyschool.com/indianhistory/IMAGES/guptas.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 134px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 200px;" /></a></div><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Temple architecture went through great changes under the Guptas, losing the old square sanctum and emerging with pillared porches. Earlier temples of the period had a flat slab roof, often monolithic, but later temples in brick and stone developed a shikhara. This evolution was gradual and easily traceable through the development of the plan and the ornamentation of the pillars, couples, goblins, flying angles, door frames, and also though dominant elements which again included goblins, couples, and flying angles, plus door keepers and a figure relief in the centre of the lintel which was emblematic of a deity consecrated in the temple. Free standing sculptural temples was a major factor in design.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Permanent materials like brick and stones were used for the first time where previously only bamboo and wood had been used. Then structural temples took the place of cave temples for the convenience of idol worship. Most of the towns and cities of the period were adorned with temples which reached great heights, according to Hiuen Tsang. Temple architecture came in a variety of forms, just like its expression in different forms and shapes, and an artistic standard was generated which became the general rule of temple construction in the modern age. Dr S K Saraswati states that Gupta temples can be divided into five different types: square with a flat roof and a 'mandapam'; square with a flat roof and 'parikrama' space around the sanctum sanctorum of the main temple with its gods; square with a low shikara dome; a rectangular temple with a vaulted roof curved at the centre; and a circular temple with projected corners. Excellent carving and panels on the walls was the specialisation of these forms of architecture. Besides, the extinct remained about Gupta architectures are Siva temple at Nachana, the Parvati Temple at Ajaya Garh in Uttar Pradesh, the Vishnu Temple in Central Province, and the Ekkalinga Siva Temple at Satana.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><a href="http://www.hawh.cn/admin/upload_file/img/2007-02/1170815259780.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.hawh.cn/admin/upload_file/img/2007-02/1170815259780.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 303px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; text-align: center; width: 242px;" /></a><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Sculptures of deities, their consorts, celestial beings, couples, directional deities, composite animals and decorative motifs formed the mass of images and these were carved on the walls of the temples and other interior areas. Deities carved in the sanctum were made according to religious canon and were installed by performing a special consecration ceremony. The artists visualised their own ideas in their sculptures, such as youthful bodies, benign expressions, and ideal proportions. They showed various subjects through their sculptures in temples to mirror everyday life, such as military processions, royal court scenes, musicians, dancers, acrobats, and amorous as well as religious scenes. And also some non-religious figures like apsara or devanganas (celestial woman) and vyalas (composite animals).</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.edunetconnect.com/cat/timemachine/images/ajanta-c.gif" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.edunetconnect.com/cat/timemachine/images/ajanta-c.gif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 202px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 321px;" /></a>Ajanta</div><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The caves during the Guptas era denote the Buddhist and Hindu sects in their architectural pattern. The best examples of Gupta dynasty architecture are Parvati temple (Nachana), Bhitarangaon temple, Vishnu temple (Tigawa), Shiva temple (Bhumara), and Dasavatara temple (Deogarh), plus caves at Chaitanya, Vihara, Bagh, Ajanta, and Ellora, and cave architecture at Khandagiri, Udaygiri and Undavalli. Cave paintings denote the Buddhist outline which was very popular during the Gupta era. These were continued for almost a century, and recorded the culmination of earlier tendencies and styles as they transformed into the new style and techniques in architecture. A famous rock-cut monastery in Ajanta consists of several Chaitya halls and numerous residential Viharas. Both its facades and interiors contain elegant relief sculptures. The wall interiors are covered with painted murals that feature superb figures drawn with a graceful winding line. A close inspection will reveal only a little difference in the images of major Indian religions like Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. It can be seen in large stone figures, stone and terracotta reliefs and also large and small bronze statuettes made in the refined artistic style of the Guptas. There are many significant Buddha art objects which were crafted during the seventh century at the time of the Pala (or Pallava) and Sena dynasties. The Guptas were mainly known for different images in bronze and hard black stone, especially from Nalanda and other places which showed extra attention towards ornamentation and fabrication, indicating the development of the Gupta dynasty itself.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Gupta architecture added some special features to carving such as spacious porches joined onto large halls, or a whole temple complex surrounded by a spacious courtyard, and one of the important features was the writing of texts around temple buildings.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Gupta architecture is revealed mainly through caves and temples. The first one is 'Mirpur Khas stupa', built in the fourth century AD.having two Buddhist stupas which represent the stupa architecture Their arches, and curve, denotes that arch-making was known to the Indians before the Muslims arrived. The second stupa is the 'Dhameka Stupa'. It is built with bricks which represents the idiom of Gupta architecture.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Sculpture played a very important part in Gupta architecture. It was a mirror of the prosperity which had a great influence on the foreign Gandhara school. It achieved unprecedented excellence under the Guptas. It was originally developed in Mathura, and carried on to perfection at Sarnath. These two places were important for the development of sculptural architecture. Bharat and Sanchi are the best examples of sculptural architecture. Artists of the Gupta dynasty imagine gods and goddesses in human form, and made carvings of human figures or religious images in the spiritual meaning and revealing their physical grace. The Bodhisattva images are one example of artistry from the Mathura school of art which are now paid a remarkable amount of attention by history lovers. Some of the more outstanding varieties of sculptural images include the mudras (signals of palms and fingers denoted different ideas) and the bhangas (the postures of the asanas). As per historians these mudras and asana were originally initiated by the Guptas.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Painting was the most popular form of artistic expression amongst the rich and poor of the Gupta period. The royal families had their 'Pratima grihas' and 'chitrashalas' or picture galleries. And common people used to paint on scrolls of linen. Ajanta, Badami and Bagh are some examples of the cave paintings which were created during the period. The cave paintings are mainly based on Jataka stories and the life of Buddha. Bodhisattva-Padmapani of Ajanta is one popular example of a Gupta painting. It represents Bodhisatva standing in the 'Trivanga' style, with a jewelled crown on his head, holding a lotus in his right hand with a glow on his face.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><a href="http://www.worldwide-numismatics.com/Gupta.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.worldwide-numismatics.com/Gupta.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 173px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; text-align: center; width: 335px;" /></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Gupta coins were different in the sense that they were made up from silver and gold. The coins marked a high watermark in Indian currency. Some coins were developed by Chandragupta II, they were based on spirituality like he preside image of goddess Lakshmi, seated on Lotus, Or in other kind like horsemen, lion, peacock type coins which marked the artistic elegance of the Guptas Dynasty.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Gupta period is known for its use and promotion of Sanskrit literature, inscriptions, sophisticated metal coins, monuments, astronomical observations, and advanced mathematics which made use of decimal notation and the numeral zero. All this served to make the empire one of the most enlightened places in the world at this time. Many great Mahayana masters lived and also wrote about this time while various Buddhist establishments such as Nalanda attracted many pilgrim-monks from China and other places. Six hundred years previously, the Mauryan emperor, Ashoka (269-232 BC), had succeeded in making Buddhism the religion for the majority of people in northern India. When he achieved this neither Brahmanical Hinduism or Jainism died out, thanks to Ashoka's religious toleration. After Ashoka all the rulers that followed also showed religious toleration, which only added to the prosperity of the territories they ruled. The Guptas though showed a preference to their family deity, Vishnu, and pursued a policy of the perfect freedom of worship.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://clevergames.files.wordpress.com/2009/05/radha-krishna_chess.jpg" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://clevergames.files.wordpress.com/2009/05/radha-krishna_chess.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 254px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 410px;" /></a>All modern studies on chess genealogy agree that we can find the origins of chess in ancient India, when, in an indeterminate period around the 6th century during the Gupta Empire, the game called Chaturanga, was invented.</div><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The rule of the Gupta emperors led to unprecedented achievements in the fields of science, mathematics, art, astronomy, literature, religion and philosophy. Gupta emperors built several temples which are remembered for their superb architecture. From Nagara-style temples to rock-cut caves; a variety of religious monuments were constructed during their rule. The Gupta emperors truly proved themselves to be prolific builders. Whether it was trade, medicine, astronomy, metaphysics, martial arts or sculpture, the Gupta emperors employed every possible strategy to make their subjects happy and prosperous.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.hyperhistory.com/online_n2/people_n2/persons3_n2/images_p3/susruta.jpg" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.hyperhistory.com/online_n2/people_n2/persons3_n2/images_p3/susruta.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 164px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 124px;" /></a>Susruta resided at the court of the Gupta kings at Pataliputra during the 'Golden Age' of Hindu culture. He wrote medical texts about surgery and he advocated the sterilization of wounds. Susruta is the author of the Susrutasamhita, the work known after his name, and one of the most brilliant gems in Indian medical literature, and thus he is recognised as the father of Indian surgery.</div><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Gupta military machine</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Strong military power played a key role in the success of the Gupta empire. The great powers or efficient martial system was achieved by Gupta from Chinese and Western observers and not just from Hindus. A contemporary Indian document, the Siva-Dhanur-veda, which is regarded as a military classic of the time, offers some insight into the military system of the Guptas.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">It seems the Guptas were heavily dependent on infantry archers, and their bows. It proved to be the dominant weapon of their army. The Hindu version of the longbow was composed of metal, or more typically bamboo, and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head. It was not like the composite bow of western and Central Asian military forces, because bows of this design would be less prone to warping in the damp and moist conditions often prevalent in the region. Between the other options for weapons the Indian longbow was considered to be a powerful weapon capable of great range and penetration and was an effective tool for killing horse archers. Other weapons were also used as effective weapons such as iron shafts against armoured elephants, fire arrows against a bowmen's arsenal, etc. Steel weapons seem to have been highly prominent in the Middle Kingdoms era in India. One of these was the steel bow. This was capable of long range firing and could penetrate exceptionally thick armour due to its high tensile strength. These were actually less common weapons than might be thought, though. One of the most commonly used weapons was of a bamboo design and could be found in the hands of noblemen rather than in the ranks. The military was very organised. The ranks were arranged in a way that offered the best levels of protection to the ordinary soldiers. Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and swords, etc. Other than these, the Gupta armies used siege craft, including catapults and other sophisticated war machines.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Samudragupta and Chandragupta II would very likely have understood the need for combined armed tactics and proper logistical organisation. Their success was from the concerted use of elephants, armoured cavalry and foot archers in tandem. They also maintained a navy to control regional waters during war time. They showed more interests towards using horse archers, despite the fact that these warriors were the main component in the ranks of their Scythian, Parthian and Hepthalite (White Hun) enemies.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Historians believe that the collapse of Gupta empire during the war with the White Huns was due to internal dissolution which weaken their ability to resist foreign invasion.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Sources of information about the Gupta empire</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Literature (and see Inscriptions, below)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The 'Puranas', the name of an ancient Indian genre of Hindu or Jain literature. They are primarily post-Vedic texts containing a narrative of the history of the Universe, from creating to destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy and geology.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The play, 'Kaumudi Mahotsava', a drama composed by the female writer, Vijjaka, which refers to King Chandrasena who is called Karaskara. King Chandrasena is identified with Chandragupta I of the Gupta dynasty by Dr Jayswal and Chandra of the Mehurali Iron pillar inscriptions by others.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The play, 'Devi-Chandraguptam', a drama composed by Vishakadaatta which refers to King Chandragupta II who is very often referred to as Vikramaditya or Chandragupta.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">'Harshacharita', a Sanskrit word which means 'The Deeds of Harsa', is the biography of Indian emperor Harsha as written by Banbhatta, who is also known as Bana, a Sanskrit writer of seventh century India. He was the 'Asthana Kavi' or court poet of King Harsha. It was his first composition and can be treated as one of the very first historical poetic works in the Sanskrit language. Harsha Charit ranks as the first historical biography in Sanskrit and as such it is written in a florid and fanciful style.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><a href="http://www.qbtpl.net/images/Nalanda.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.qbtpl.net/images/Nalanda.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 175px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; text-align: center; width: 250px;" /></a><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;"><div><a href="http://www.culturalindia.net/gifs/nalanda-university-bihar.jpg" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.culturalindia.net/gifs/nalanda-university-bihar.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 160px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 220px;" /></a>Nalanda University<br />
<br />
Historical studies indicate that the University of Nalanda was established 450 CE under the patronage of the Gupta emperors, notably Kumaragupta</div><br />
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</div></div><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">The Mahayana Buddhist Chronicle</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Mahayanists wrote their own Buddhist doxographies in the early fifth century. The earliest Mahayana chronicles, the Manjusriparpyccha was translated into Chinese by Sanghabhara, who travelled to India between AD 506 and 520.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">'Arya-Manjushri Mul kalpa', dealing with imperial dynasties and Indian history from 700 BC to AD 750. The history was a Buddhist Mahayana work by a Tibetan scholar, and was composed sometime in the eighth century AD.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Records of the travels of two Chinese pilgrims, Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang, who visited India in the fifth and seventh century AD respectively. Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang left behind an account about India and Bengal. He is also known as Xuanzang, or Hsuan-tsang, and was born in Henan Province in China in AD 603. From Xingdu throughout China until he reached Changan, then under the rule of Tang emperor Taizong he travelled in search of the sacred books of Buddhism and eventually came to India.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">He knew about Fa-Hien's visit to India. He was also concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the Buddhist scripture that Fa-Hien had brought back to China.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Starting from China in AD 629, he passed through Central Asia via the northern trade route which went through Kuch (Gujarat) and then reached northern India, where he arrived at the city of Kanauj. There he was guest of Harshavardhana, the great Indian emperor. He visited the sacred Buddhist sites in Magadha and spent a great deal of time studying at the great Nalanda monastery.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The pilgrim next travelled to parts of western, northern and south-eastern Bengal, and then to southern and western India. He returned to China, again by way of Central Asia, though this time by the southern route via Khotan. Hiuen-Tsang recorded the details of all the countries he visited. He also included information on countries he had heard reports of; for example, he has recorded some stories about Sri Lanka when he was in southern India, though he had not visited the island.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Across India most people had become vegetarians, except for fish which was widely consumed in Bengal and places to its south. And unlike parts of the Roman empire, a traveller in India had little reason to fear robbery. Hiuen-Tsang travelled about in India for eleven years and recorded that he was never molested or robbed.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">His records of visits to the places in Bengal - 'Raktamritikka' near 'Karnasuvarna', 'Pundranagar' and its surrounding area, 'Samatata' and 'Tamaralipti'. All these records were helpful for uncovering the political, social, and archaeological history of Bengal. Besides this he covered the 'Gauda' tribal kingdom under Shashanka of seventh century Bengal.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Inscription</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Inscriptions are an important and reliable source of history for the Guptas. They are incised on stone, as well as on metal, the latter consisting of copper plates or the Meherauli Iron Pillar inscription. The Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta or the Mandasor Pillar inscription of Yashodharman are examples of some of the chronicles of contemporary events. Besides this there are many donative inscriptions to provide records of religious endowments or secular donations.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The coins show the progressive evolution of indigenous Indian coinage and of its emancipation from the prevailing foreign and Kushan models.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Another source is monuments, which are a source of artistic and religious history, and provide information of different schools of art, with examples including Mathura, Varanasi and Nalanda.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Temples are another example of inscriptions of religious history such as those of Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga (Hindu gods), Buddha (Bodhisattva), and Jain Tirthankaras. Udaygir temple (at Gwalior) and Pathari are the most famous examples of these inscriptions.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.indianetzone.com/photos_gallery/7/Dashavataratemple_10753.jpg" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.indianetzone.com/photos_gallery/7/Dashavataratemple_10753.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 235px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 300px;" /></a>The stone temple in Deogarh of Dasabatara with its excellent carvings and panels on the walls, is an extant remain of Gupta architecture.</div><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Origin of Guptas:</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Political imbalance demoshed Kushan Empire and the emergence of the gupta dynasty in India. Gupta dynasty ruled India between 3rd century and 6th century C.E. The Gupta period is often described as a period of Hindu renaissance. It supported art, music, architecture, sculpture and paintings.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">SriGupta (240-280 AD) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">was ruling a small Hindu kingdom called Magadha from Vaishya community near Ganga river, a prayag based feudatory of Kushanas. He and his son ‘Ghatotkach’ (ruled probably from c. AD 280-319) was having hold over ‘Patliputra’ and nearby areas. They were may be holding some of the parts of northern or central ‘Bengal’ too. It is understood that Sri Gupta could be the first king of the Guptas. He In contrast to his successor, he is also referred to in inscriptions as ‘Maharaja’ but, the Poona copper inscription of Prabhavati Gupta describes Sri Gupta as the ‘Adhiraja’, no much records are available.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">At the beginning of the 5th century the Guptas established and ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in Magadha and around modern-day Bihar.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Ghatotkacha (280 – 319 AD) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">became the successor of Sri Gupta. The two records of Prabhavati Gupta (daughter of Chandragupta II) indicates Ghatotkacha as the Gupta king. But neither much evidence is available to clearly prove Ghatotkacha as the first king of Guptas.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Chandragupta I (320-335)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> Chandragupta was born in 305 AD. When he was in his teens, he married a Lichchhavi (present-day Nepal) princess named Kumaradevi. Through this matrimonial alliance, he gained enormous power and used it to his great advantage. . The Gupta emperors, from the very beginning, were renowned for their military skills, chivalry, diplomacy and astuteness.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Chandragupta I is truly recognised as the consolidator of the Gupta Empire. He launched a series of military expansions, pushing the kingdom's boundaries westward. By 320 A.D He extended his territory to Magadha, Prayaga (present-day Allahabad in north central India.)and Saketa. He proclaimed himself as a Maharajadhiraya (King of Kings). Many historians consider 320 A.D. was the beginning of the Gupta dynasty.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Samudragupta (335-380)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> He was the son of Chandragupta I and Mahadevi Kumaradevi, grandson of Ghatotkacha. Chandra Gupta lay dying, and he told his son, Samudragupta, to rule the whole world. Samudra Gupta's forty-five years of rule would be described as one vast military campaign. He fought with overwhelming nine kings near Ganges plain and incorporating their subjects and lands into the Gupta Empire. He defeated Bengal, Nepal and Assam and expanded his empire westward, conquering Malava and Ujjayini. . He raided Pallava and humbled eleven kings in southern India. . He made a vassal of the king of Lanka, and he compelled five kings on the outskirts of his empire to pay him tribute. The powerful kingdom of Vatakata in central India. He gained the name “Indian Nepoleon” due to his conquests in many directions and various kinds.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Samudragupta performed Horse sacrifice when he completed the conquests. Also introduced different coins representing Asvamedha Yagna were distributed to Brahmins. Eight different types of coins have found like archer, battle axe, tiger slayer, kacha, Ashwamedha, lyrist etc.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">c. 375-? Kushan kings-</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Ramgupta (375-???)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> Things are available to prove that he was son of Samudragupta, although any inscription or coins are not available for that. Some historical dramas like ‘Devichandraguptam’ material like ‘Natyadarpan’,and a historical drama ‘Devichandraguptm’ which described Rama Gupta as son and successor of Samudragupta. It is said in the drama that Rama Gupta sustains a humiliating defeat at the hands of sakas and agrees to surrender his queen to the Sakas which provokes his brother Chandragupta II. He disguise of queen Dhruvadevi, enters enemies camp and kill the Saka king to restore the gupta empire, and queen. This incident raises Chandragupta in the eyes of people and Dhruvadevo. The conduct of Rama Gupta gets betrayed by the brother and Rama Gupta kills him and sits on the throne. He then marries to the widow of his brother.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Chandragupta II/ Vikramaditya (380-413)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> Samudra Gupta died (around 380) and was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya. He was one of the most distinguished ruler of Gupta Empire.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Addressed as `Maharaja` the Gupta emperors were gallant and possessed a cultural bent of mind. This was one of the reasons why several litterateurs received royal patronage. Whilst he fought with unfathomable courage to extend his empire, he was an ardent admirer of various cultures. He extended Gupta rule to India's west coast, where new ports were helping India's trade with countries farther west. While Rome was being overrun and the western half of the Roman Empire was disintegrating.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">c. 410-413</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Kumaragupta I/ Mahendraditya (415-455)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> Chandra Gupta II died in 415 and the Gupta kingdom succeeded by his son (some people say Skanda gupta succeeded his father in 455), Kumara Gupta, who maintained India's peace and prosperity. He maintained Gupta Empire remained undiminished during his forty year reign. Then India suffered more invasions due to Roman Empire around this time.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Skandagupta/ Vikramaditya (455-467)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> He was son of Kumargupta I. Skanda Gupta the crown prince was able to drive the invaders (Hephthalites) back, into the Sassanian Empire, where they were to defeat the Sassanid army and kill the Sassanid king, Firuz.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">He was popular amongpeople especially women and children praised him. Then the Hephthalites returned, and he spent much of his reign of twenty-five years combating them, which drained his treasury and weakened his empire.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Skanda Gupta died (467), and after a century and a half the cycle of rise and disintegration of empire turned again to disintegration. Contributing to this was dissention within the royal family. Benefiting from this dissention, governors of provinces and feudal chieftains revolted against Gupta rule. For awhile the Gupta Empire had two centers: at Valabhi on the western coast and at Pataliputra toward the east. Seeing weakness, the Hephthalites invaded India again -- in greater number. Just before the year 500, the Hephthalites took control of the Punjab. After 515, they absorbed the Kashmir, and they advanced into the Ganges Valley, the heart of India, raping, burning, massacring, blotting out entire cities and reducing fine buildings to rubble. Provinces and feudal territories declared their independence, and the whole of north India became divided among numerous independent kingdoms. And with this fragmentation India was again torn by numerous small wars between local rulers.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Purugupta (467-473 AD) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Gupta empire began to decline after death of Skandagupta. His brother appears to have been the immediate successor to Skandagupta. Purugupta was son of Kumaragupta I by his queen Ananthadevi. He ascended the throne at his oldage. He ruled just for 6 years.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Narsimhagupta Baladitya (467-473)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> He was son of Purugupta by the queen Shri Vinayadevi.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Kumargupta II (473-476 AD)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> The successor after Narsimha Baladatitya was his son Kumaragupta II (Kramaditya). The rule seems to have ended about the year 476-477 AD. It is understood that Kumaragupta II, Narsimha Baladitya and Purugupta altogether could rule only for about ten years.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Buddhagupta (477-495 AD)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> A large number of inscription refer that Buddhagupta could manage to keep the empire intact. He ruled for about 20 years. Buddhagupta was succeeded by Tathagata Gupta. Some people even believe that Krishna Gupta and Harsha Gupta succeeded Budhagupta in ruling the empire and then Budhagupta and Harshagupta succeeded Jivitagupta I.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Kumargupta III (????)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> There was Kumargupta III wh succeeded Jivitagupta I. He faced many difficulties by Mukharis, Gowdas in West Bengal, then from Andhra king. They tried to threat him and somehow he he claimed victories over them.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The next successor of gupta dynasty are Damodarguptas, Mahasenagupta, Madhavagupta and Devagupta II had threat by the enemies. It is believe that Adityasena, Devagupta III and the lat king Jivagupta III were the names of last guptas. And it was Gowdas who destroyed the fame of Fuptas.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Bhanugupta (c.499-543)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> As per the inscription Bhanugupta was merely a ‘Raja’ (Not a Maharaja). He therefore stand in the history of guptas as a governor of Malwa under emperor Narsimha Gupta. Huna’s attack fell upon Malwas and Bhanugupta lost the battle. Hunas then moved further towards Magadha. As the date of inscription it was during AD 510 after the Toraman ruled over Malwa.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Vainyagupta (fl. 508)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> In Comilla eastern Bengal, Gunaigarh copper plate inscription has found therecords of vainyagupta. It has recorded that Vainya Gupta granted some lands in a village for maintaining Buddha vihar.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Three Archer gold coins have been discovered and it would be belongs to Vainyagupta. He was associated with eastern Bengal, so believable that he belongs to the direct line of imperial guptas. Still have conflicts over these two. The copper inscription, Gunaigarh found is soldered royal seal mentioning the name of ‘Maharaja Sri Vainya Guptah’.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Vishnugupta (c. 540-550)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> was one of the lesser known kings of the Gupta Dynasty.He is generally considered to be the last recognized king of theGupta Empire. His reign lasted 10 years, from 540 to 550 CE.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><img alt="" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Owner/LOCALS~1/Temp/moz-screenshot-10.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><a href="http://www.mitchellteachers.org/Images/MrMJpegsGifs/GuptaPic.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.mitchellteachers.org/Images/MrMJpegsGifs/GuptaPic.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 240px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; text-align: center; width: 181px;" /></a><br />
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</div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2674020619695346718.post-16552967438830853462011-12-06T23:32:00.000-08:002011-12-06T23:32:57.680-08:00Vijaynagar kingdom<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://farm1.static.flickr.com/32/65034009_f6d6a7367d.jpg?v=0" style="color: #dd6599; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://farm1.static.flickr.com/32/65034009_f6d6a7367d.jpg?v=0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 329px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 384px;" /></a></div><div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;"><img alt="" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Owner/LOCALS~1/Temp/moz-screenshot-4.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px;" />Lotus Palace, Vijaynagar<br />
</div><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Foundation of Vijaynagar kingdom (1336 – 1646 CE):</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Vijaynagar kingdom was one of the important kingdoms in the medieval Indian history. Vijaynagar Dynasty rules over India for 3 centuries. It is a history full of wars with Bahamani and other muslim rulers of northern Deccan, collectively said as Deccan sultanates.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Vijayanagara is in Bellary District of northern Karnataka. It is the name of the now-ruined capital city of the historic Vijayanagar Kingdom which extended over the southern part of India that included the territories of Mysore, Trichinopally, Kanara, Pondicherry, Chingalpet and Kanchivaram.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Two brothers </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Harihara (Hakka) I</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> and </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Bukka Raya</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> laid the foundation of the Vijaynagar city, which was on the South bank of </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Tungabhadra</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">River near </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Anegudi</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> Fortress. They were also known as Sangama brothers. Vijaynagar Empire consolidated under Harihara I and began to expand and prosper under Bukka Raya which was more defensible and secure for its location between 14th and 16th century. It is said that a sage Madhav Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana were the inspirational source for this empire. The rulers were strict worshipers of the Hindu Gods and Goddess, but also tolerant towards the other religions. The emperors were great patrons of art and culture. The region influenced a development in the streams of music, literature and architecture. Many temples built in the territories of the south represent the style of Vijaynagar kingdom. The economy of the region flourished and several coins were introduced during the reign of the rulers of the Vijaynagar Empire.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Kings of Vijaynagar Dynasty:</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">There were four dynasties ruled over Vijaynagar -- Sangama Dynasty, Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and Aravidu Dynasty.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Sangama dynasty (1334 – 1646CE) was the first to rule over Vijaynagar kingdom. Hariharan I and Bukka established Vijaynagar kingdom when Tughlaqs lost his power in Deccan. But its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan Sultanates.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><img alt="" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Owner/LOCALS~1/Temp/moz-screenshot-1.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; 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margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; text-align: center; width: 330px;" /></a><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Sangama Kings List:</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Harihara I (1336 – 1356 CE) :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">He is known as </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Hakka</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> and </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Vira Harihara I</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">. He was the founder of Vijaynagar Empire, which was at south based in the Deccan Plateau. He was Bhavana Sangama’s eldest son, belonged to the Kuruba (or Kurumas are Dhangaras in Southern states of India) and was the founder of the Sangama dynasty. [Some people believe that he was from Yadava clan]When he came to the power, he immediately built a fort at Barkuru which is at the west coast of present day of Karnataka. It is concluded from the inscriptions that he was administering the northern parts of Karnataka at Gutti, Ananthpur district from his seat during 1339 period of time.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Harihara was controlling northern portion of Hoysala kingdom. After death of Hoysala Veera Ballala III, he took full control over its entire range during 1343. He was famous by the names Karnataka Vidya Vilas (master of great knowledge and skills), Bhashegetappuvarayaraganda (punisher of those feudatories who don't keep their promise), Arirayavibhada (fire to enemy kings).</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Kampana governed Nellur region, Muddppa administered Mulabagalu region, Marappa oversaw Chandragutti and Bukka Raya was his second in command. So overall his kingdom was well organized.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Bukka Raya I /Bukka (1356-1377 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Bukka Raya ruled the kingdom for about twenty one years. The kingdom prospered and continued to expand as Bukka Raya conquered most of the kingdoms of southern India, continually expanding the territory of the empire. He defeated the Shambuvaraya Kingdom of Arcot and the Reddis of Kondavidu by 1360 and the region around Penukonda was annexed. He defeated the Sultanate of Madurai in 1371 and extended his territory into the south all the way to Rameswaram. His son, Kumara Kamapna campaigned with him and their efforts were recorded in the Sanskrit work Madhuravijayam written by his wife Gangambika. By 1374 he had gained an upper hand over the Bahmanis for control of the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab and also took control of Goa, the kingdom of Orissa (Orya) were also captured and Bukka forced the Jaffna Kingdom of Ceylon and Malabar to pay tributes to him.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">During his reign Bukka would also have clashes with the Bahmani Sultans. The first was during the time of </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Mohammed Shah I</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> and the other during the time of </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Mujahid</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">. It is said that Bukka also sent a mission to China during his reign.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Bukka died in about 1380 and was succeeded by </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Harihara II</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">. It is also notable that under Bukka Raya's reign the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire established itself at Vijayanagara, on the south side of the river, which was more secure and defensive than their previous capitol at Anegondi. Even with the wars and internal conflicts, Bukka still managed to help support internal improvements for the city. Important works of literature were also written during his rule. Dozens of scholars lived under the guidance of Vidyaranya and Sayana. Sayana's commentary on the Vedas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas was written under the petronage of Bukka.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Harihara Raya II (1377-1404 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">During his reign, Harihara II continued to extend the kingdom's territory through fighting against the Reddis of Kondavidu for control of the coastal Andhra between </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Nellore</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> and </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Kalinga</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">. From the Reddis of Kondavidu, Harihara II conquered the </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Addanki</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> and </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Srisailam</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> areas as well as most of the territory between the peninsula to the south of the river Krishna, which would eventually lead to fights in Telangana with the Velamas of Rachakonda. Harihara II took advantage of the death of Mujahid Bahmani in 1378 and extended his control into the northwest, controlling such ports as Goa, Chaul, and Dabhol.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Harihara ruled from the capital Vijayanagara now more popularly known as Hampi. What is believed to be the ruins of Harihara’s palace is located among the Hampi ruins.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">He patronised Kannada poet Madhura, a Jaina. An important work on Vedas was completed during his time. He earned the titles Vaidikamarga Sthapanacharya and Vedamarga Pravartaka.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Virupaksha Raya (1404-1405CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">With the death of Harihara II, the throne for the Vijayanagara Empire was disputed among his sons, including Deva Raya I, Bukka Raya II, and Virupaksha Raya. Virupaksha Raya would only rule for a few months before being murdered by his sons and then succeeded by Bukka Raya II who would rule for two years before he himself would be succeeded by </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Deva Raya I</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">. As his rule was only for a few months, Virupaksha's reign was not marked with any significant events or changes, though it is noted by the traveler </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Fernao Nuniz</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> that Virupaksha Raya lost a lot of the kingdom's land to the Muhammadans such as Goa, Chaul, and Dabhol and that </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Virupaksha</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">himself was cruel and as Fernao Nuniz wrote, "caring for nothing but women and to fuddle himself with drink"</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Bukka Raya II (1405-1406 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">After the death of Harihara II the succession of the thrown was disputed among Harihara II's sons. Virupaksha Raya managed to rule for a few months before he was murdered by his own sons. After Virupaksha's death, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Bukka Raya II</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> succeeded him as emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire. However, similar to his brother before him, Bukka Raya II only reigned for a short time period before he too would be overthrown by his brother, Deva Raya I.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Deva Raya I (1406-1422 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">After Harihara II died there was a dispute between his sons for the throne of the Vijayanagara Empire in which Deva Raya I eventually come out as victor. Throughout his reign, Deva Raya was continually fought against the Velamas of Telangana, the Bahmani Sultan of Gulbarga, and the Reddis of Kondavidu and the Gajaptis of Kalinga. Even so, Deva Raya was be capable of managing the vast amount of territory that he controlled. After his death, Deva Raya was be succeeded by his sons Ramachandra Raya and Vijaya Raya.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Ramachandra Raya (1422 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Ramachandra Raya was the son of Deva Raya I who became king of the Vijayanagara Empire after his father's death in 1422. Throughout his reign there were no recorded significant changes in territory or major events. Afterwords, he would be succeeded by his brother, Vijararaya, in the same year who was not noted for doing anything significant.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya (1422-1424 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Veera Vijaya Bukka Raya was the son of Deva Raya I and succeeded his brother, Ramachandra Raya, in 1422 as the king of the Vijayanagara Empire. Similar to Ramachandra Raya, Vijaya Raya is not known for doing anything significant and his short reign ended in 1424 when he was succeeded by his son, Deva Raya II.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Deva Raya II (1424-1446 CE) </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Deva Raya II succeeded his father Veera Vijaya Bukka Raya after his short uneventful two year reign was a monarch of the Vijayanagara Empire. Unlike his father, Deva Raya II was an effective and successful monarch. During his reign, Deva Raya II prevailed over his conquest of Kondavidu in 1432, repelled the invasions of Ahmad Shah I of the Bahamanis and retained the Mudgal fort in 1436 but lost some areas in the Raichur doab in 1443, defeated the Gajapati of Orissa three times in 1427, 1436 and 1441, restored the Reddi Kingdom of Rajamahendri to its former position, fought against the Sultan Ala-Ud-Din, and continued onwards to Kerala where he defeated the ruler of Quilon as well as other chieftains. He invaded Lanka and collected rich tributes there. The ruler of Calicut and even the kings of Burma ruling at Pegu and Tanasserim paid tributes.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Mallikarjuna Raya (1446-1465 CE) </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Mallikarjuna Raya succeeded his father Deva Raya II, who had brought prosperity throughout the Vijayanagara Empire as well as a golden age for the Sangama Dynasty. However, Mallikarjuna Raya was unlike his father, and was generally a weak and corrupt ruler.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">At the beginning of his reign he defended the kingdom from the attacks of the Bahamani Sultan and the Raja of the Hindu kingdom of Orissa, but thereafter it was marked by a string of defeats: the Gajapatis conquered Rajamahendri in 1454, Udayagiri and Chandragiri in 1463 and the Bahamani kingdoms took over much of the Vijayanagara Empire by 1450 and grew closer to the capital, while at the same time the Portuguese arrived in southern India, seizing many of the ports on the western coast that the Vijayanagara Empire had once controlled.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">These events eventually led to the decline of the Sangama Dynasty; Mallikarjuna Raya's cousin Virupaksha Raya II took the opportunity to seize the throne, though he failed to prove a better ruler.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Virupaksha Raya II (1465-1485 CE) </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Virupaksha Raya II succeeded his uncle, Mallikarjuna Raya, a corrupt and weak ruler who continually lost against the empire's enemies. Throughout his reign, Virupaksha was faced with rebellious nobles and officers as well as multiple enemies who began to invade the weakened kingdom. It was during this time that Virupaksha Raya II lost the Konkan coast (including Goa, Chaul, and Dabul) by 1470 to Prime Minister Mahamud Gawan from the Bahamani kingdom, which was sent to conquer the area by the Sultan Muhammad Shah III. Virupaksha became increasingly unpopular and ignited many of the empire's provinces to rebel, eventually leading up to Virupaksha's death in the hands of his own son, Praudharaya in 1485. Praudharaya himself was not able to salvage the kingdom but fortunately, an able general Saluva Narasimha took control of the empire in 1485 and helped to prevent its demise, though this change of power would mark the end of the Sangama Dynasty and the beginning of the Saluva Dynasty.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Praudha Raya (1485 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">He was an unpopular king of Vijayanagara Empire who ruled for a very short period of time being driven out of the capital by his able commander Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya in 1485.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">He wrote Ratiratnapradipika, a book on erotics.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">Temple Art</div><a href="http://www.templenet.com/Arts/shiva_mural.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.templenet.com/Arts/shiva_mural.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; float: right; height: 182px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 279px;" /></a><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Saluva Dynasty (1485- 1505 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">One of the ruling dynasty from Vijaynagar Empire of Southern India. Saluva Dynasty had given three kings during their period.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Saluva Dynasty was created by the Saluvas who by historical tradition were natives of the Kalyani region of northern Karnataka. The Gorantla inscription traces their origins to this region from the time of the Western Chalukyas and Kalachuris of Karnataka. The term "Saluva" is known to lexicographers as "hawk" used in hunting. They later spread into the east coast of modern Andhra Pradesh, perhaps by migration or during the Vijayanagara conquests during the 14th century.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The earliest known Saluva from inscriptional evidence in the Vijayanagara era was Mangaldeva, the great grandfather of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya. Mangaldeva played an important role in the victories of King Bukka Raya I against the Sultanate of Madurai. His descendents founded the Saluva Dynasty and were one of the ruling lines of the Vijayanagara Empire of Southern India. Three kings ruled from 1485 to 1505 after which the Tuluva Dynasty claimed the throne. They ruled almost the entire South India with Vijaynagar as their capital.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Saluva Kings list :</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya (1485-1491 CE) </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">After the death of Virupaksha Raya II and arrival of Prauda Deva Raya as the new monarch of Vijayanagar, the empire plunged into neglect and anarchy. Seeing that a military coup was the only hope to save the kingdom, he despatched the son of Tuluva Isvara, Tuluva Narasa Nayaka to the imperial capital of Vijayanagara. The incumbent king Prauda Raya fled thus starting the rule of Saluva Narasimha.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">As king, Saluva Narashima tried to expand the empire, though he continually faced difficulties caused from rebelling chieftains. By 1491, he lost Udayagiri to Gajapati Kapilendra while the Chiefs of Ummattur in the Mysore region, Saluvas of Hadavalli and Santharas of Karkala from coastal Karnataka region, Srirangapatna and Sambetas of Peranipadu in Cuddapah still remained threats to the empire.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Saluva Narashima's war with the Gajapatis over Udayagiri in 1489 proved disastrous when he was taken prisoner and released later after giving up the fort and surrounding areas. However he was successful at conquering the western ports of Kannada country of Mangalore, Bhatkal, Honnavar and Bakanur. This success enabled him to trade for swift horses with the Arabs. He took more efforts in the upkeep of his cavalry and army in general.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Saluva Narashima eventually died in 1491. However, at the time, his sons were too young to ascend to the throne. Because of this, the sons were left to the care of Narasa Nayaka, a loyal general and minister from the Tuluva family.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Thimma Bhupala (1491CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">He was the elder son of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya, the King of Vijayanagara Empire. During the reign of his father, he was holding the office of Yuvaraja. Prince Thimma succeeded his father in 1491 but was soon murdered by an army commander during a period of political unrest in Vijayanagara. He was succeeded by his younger brother Narasimha Raya II.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Narasimha Raya II (1491-1505 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">or Immadi Narasimha or Dhamma Tammaraya was the second son of King Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya. Narasimha Raya II succeeded by his elder brother Thimma Bhupala. Though he was a crowned king of Vijayanagara Empire, the real power lay in the hands of the empire's able commander Tuluva Narasa Nayaka till his death in 1503. Narasa Nayaka, under the pretence of his safety, kept him in confinement at Penukonda. In 1503, after the death of Narasa Nayaka, his eldest son Viranarasimha Raya became the regent of the empire. In 1505, Narasimha Raya II was murdered in Penukonda and Viranarasimha Raya proclaimed himself king.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Tuluva Dynasty (1491 – 1570 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">This is known as a third Dynasty which ruled Vijaynagar Empire. The dynasty was named "Tuluva" because they belonged to the Tulu speaking region called "TULUNAD" and their mother tounge was "Tulu" language. They were originally from Karnartaka. Tuluva Dynasty was one of the ruling lines of the Vijayanagara Empire of Southern India. It had given five emperors for the Vijaynagar kingdom and was ruled with Vijayanagara capital. Krishna Deva Raya was the most famous ruler of their period. The empire attained it greatest glory of time.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><a href="http://www.jokisaari.net/goa/pics/hampi5.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.jokisaari.net/goa/pics/hampi5.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; float: left; height: 213px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 0pt; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 0pt; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 303px;" /></a><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Tuluva kings list:</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Tuluva Narasa Nayaka (1491-1503 CE)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> who belonged to the Bunt community (Tulu speaking forward class Matrilineal Hindu community beloning to the Nagavanshi Kshatriya, order found mainly in southern coastal Karnataka) was the able commander of the Vijayanagar army under the rule of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya and the de-facto sovereign during the nominal rule of the sons of Saluva Narasimha.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">After the death of King Saluva Narasimha, crown prince Thimma Bhupala was murdered by an army commander. The faithful Narasa Nayaka then crowned the other prince, Narasimha Raya II but retained all administrative powers in order to bring stability to the kingdom. He was called the rakshakarta (protector) and svami (Lord). He held the offices of the senadhipati (commander-in-chief), the mahapradhana (Prime Minister) and the karyakarta (agent) of the king. He successfully kept the Bahamani Sultans and the Gajapatis away from the kingdom and quelled many rebellions by unfaithfull chieftains, trying to exert their independence.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Viranarasimha Raya (1503-1509 CE) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">who belonged to the Bunt community became the king of Vijayanagar empire after the death of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka. The younger Krishnadevaraya was the king's half brother.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The death of their capable father Tuluva Narasa Nayaka resulted in feudatories rising in rebellion everywhere. At first, Immadi Narasa Nayaka, the eldest son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka became king and lasted at the throne for two years before being assassinated. Viranarasimha Raya was next crowned in 1505 and spent all his years fighting rebel warlords.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">When on his death bed, legend has it that Viranarasimha Raya requested his minister Saluva Thimma (Thimmarasa) to blind Krishnadevaraya so that his own eight year old son could become king of Vijayanagar. Thimmarasa however brought a pair of she-goat eyes to the king and informed him that he had Krishnadevaraya killed. However there is no record to prove anything but a friendly relationship between the two half brothers and that the coronation of Krishnadevaraya was a smooth one.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1529 CE) </span><a href="http://raaas.com/images/gold/vijaya%20nagara%20krishna%20devaraya.jpg" style="background-color: white; color: #dd6599; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px; text-decoration: none;"></a><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Sri Krishna Deva Raya was the most famous king of Vijayanagara Empire. He belonged to the tuluva bunt community. Presiding over the empire at its zenith, he is regarded as a hero by Tuluvas, Kannadigas and Telugus, and one of the great kings of India. Emperor Krishna Deva Raya also earned the titles Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana, Mooru Rayara Ganda (meaning King of three kings) and Andhra Bhoja. Krishna Deva Raya was assisted in administration by the very able Prime Minister Timmarusu, who was revered by the king as a father figure and was responsible for his corronation. Krishna Deva Raya was the son of Nagala Devi and Tuluva Narasa Nayaka an army commander under Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya, who later took control of the reign of the empire to prevent it from disintegration. The king's coronation took place on the birthday of Lord Krishna and his earliest inscription is from July 26, 1509 CE. He built a beautiful suburb near Vijayanagara called Nagalapura in memory of his mother.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Achyuta Raya (1529-1542 CE)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> who belonged to the Bunt community was a ruler of a Vijayanagara Empire of South India. He was the younger brother of Krishna Deva Raya, whom he succeeded in 1529. Upon his death, the succession was disputed. His nephew, Sadashiva, finally became king while yet a child, under the regency of Aliya Rama Raya, a son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The time when Achyuta Raya became the king was by no means a favorable one. The peace and prosperity of the halcyon days under Krishnadevaraya were coming to an end. Feudatories and enemies were waiting for an opportunity to bring down the empire. In addition, Achyuta Raya had to contend with the powerful Aliya Rama Raya, who was competing for the throne.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">While the works of Nuniz speak very lowly of Achyuta Raya as being a king given to vices and cruelty, there is enough evidence to prove that the king was indeed noteworthy in his own right and fought hard to keep the prosperity of the kingdom alive. He had been handpicked by Krishnadevaraya himself as an able successor.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur invaded and captured the Raichur doab. However the Gajapati's of Orissa and Quli Qutub Shah of Golconda were defeated and pushed back. Now Achyuta Raya along with his general Salakaraju Tirumala went on a southern campaign to bring the chiefs of Travancore and Ummatur under control. This they did successfully. Then they invaded the doab north of Tungabhadra and recaptured the forts of Raichur and Mudgal.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The two Sanskrit works Achyutabhyudayam and Varadambikaparinayam describe the kings life and rule in detail.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Throughout his rule, Achyuta Raya had to contend with the manipulations of Rama Raya who in his powerful capacity had replaced many of the faithfull servants of the Kingdom in high ranking positions with men of his own favour. On more than one occasion the Bahamani Sultans were brought in to play the role of mediator between the king and Ailya Rama Raya in the game of power sharing. This would further weaken the kingdom. In 1542 Aliya Rama Raya imprisoned Achyuta Raya in a coup and made Sadasiva Raya the new regent. Aliya Rama Raya became the de-facto king and let very little governance in the hands of Sadasiva Raya.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Tiruvengalanatha Temple was built at Vijayanagara during his reign. It has become popularly known by his name as Achyutaraya Temple, rather than by the name of the deity Lord Venkateshwara to whom the temple was dedicated.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Sadashiva Raya (1542-1570)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> who belonged to the Bunt community was a ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire, a powerful South Indian empire based in the Deccan in 16th century India.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">When the Vijayannagara ruler, Achyuta Raya died in AD 1541, his son, Venkatadri, succeeded him. He was a weak ruler and six months later his cousin, Sadasiva, became king. Sadasiva Raya was controlled by his minister Rama Raya, the de facto king, who restored the Vijayanagara empire's power which had diminished after the rule of Krishna Deva Raya. Rama Raya's strategy was to play the Deccan Sultanates against each other by first allying with one and then another.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Aravidu Dynasty (1542 – 1586 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">This was the fourth and last Hindu dynasty which ruled Vijaynagar Kingdom in South India. Rama Raya was the regent of Tuluva kingdom’s last king. Tirumala was the founder of Aravidu kingdom. The attack of combined Muslim forces from Bijapur led the Ram Raya to be dead at the battle of Rakasa at Tangadi or Taikota in 1565 and destructed the Vijaynagar kingdom.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">The main rulers of the Aravidu dynasty:</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">The Aravidu Dynasty was the fourth and last Hindu dynasty which ruled Vijayanagara Empire in South India. Its founder was Tirumala, whose brother Rama Raya had been the masterful regent of the last ruler of the previous dynasty. Rama Raya's death at the Battle of Rakasa-Tangadi (also known as the Battle of Talikota) in 1565 led to the subsequent destruction of Vijayanagar by the combined forces of the Muslim states of Bijapur.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Aliya Rama Raya or Rama Raya, (1542-1565 CE)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> popularly known as "</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 18px;">Aliya</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">" Rama Raya, was the progenitor of the "Aravidu" dynasty of Vijayanagar Empire. This dynasty, the fourth and last to hold sway over the Vijayanagara Empire, is often not counted as a ruling dynasty of that empire, for reasons delineated below. Rama Raya patronised the Sanskrit scholar Rama Amatya.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Tirumala Deva Raya (1565-1572 CE)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> was the first Crowned King of the Vijayanagara Empire from the Aravidu Dynasty. He was the brother of the Aliya Rama Raya and son-in-law of Krishna Deva Raya.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">When Rama Raya was killed in the Talikonda battle in 1565 he immediately emptied the treasury and fled the capital to taking with him the Royal family and the minor crown prince Sadasiva Raya.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">He, after a few years of hardships, reestablished the Vijaynagar rule in Penukonda, in present day Andhra Pradesh. During this time the Southern Nayakas of Madurai and Gingee declared partial independence, while some others rebelled over Tirumala Deva Raya’s authority.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">In 1567 he encountered another attack by the Bijapur Sultan; this time the Sultan was defeated, but also lost some territories. Tirumala Deva Raya later tactfully approved the new status of Southern Nayaks, who still paid some tributes and held him as their emperor. Tanjore and Mysore rulers still paid the annual tributes while Madurai and Gingee rulers grudgingly followed.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Tirumala Deva Raya also retained most of the Vijaynagar territories and assumed the title “Reviver of the Decadent Karnataka Empire”. In 1570 he split the Viceroyalty among his three sons: Sriranga I in Penukonda in charge of Telugu country, Rama (father of Sriranga II) in Sritrangapatna in charge of the Kannada country and Venkatapathi (a.k.a. Venkata II) in Chandragiri in charge of Tamil country. Penukonda was the Capital of the empire. The King retired in 1572 after feeling too old to rule and retired to a religious life of living till 1578.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Sriranga I/Sriranga Deva Raya (1572-1586 CE)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> was the king of Vijayanagara empire, from 1572-1586. He carried the restoration of the Vijayanagara Empire, but his reign was marred with repeated attacks and loss of territories from his Muslim neighbours.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">In 1576, Ali Adil Shah laid siege to his fort in Penukonda for three months, but at the end Sriranga I bought out the Adil Shah’s Hindu lieutenants which helped his commanders defeat the Sultan’s army.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">In 1579, Sultan’s new commander Murari Rao, a Maratha Brahmin, launched a sudden plundering operation heading a large Muslim army. His hordes began systematically ravaging the territory south of the River Krishna with great ferocity.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Chennappa Nayaka , a general of Recherla Velama dynasty was sent to defeat the Golkonda raiders but the magnitude of Atorcities committed by the invaders alerted Sriranga I who also hurried to parry the attack. Murari Rao and his Golkonda raiders were defeated, Murari Rao was pursued by Chennappa who captured and imprisoned him in a cage. By 1580, Sriranga I turned the tide and started chasing the Golkonda army northwards recovering the territory they had seized. Sriranga I generously spared the life of Murari Rao because of his brahminical origins.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Ibrahim Qutb Shah, the new Sultan was furious and decided to settle the matters himself and invaded Kondavidu with the rest of his army and took the Udayagiri fort. Then he launched a massive raid on Udayagiri and slaughtered the locals, but Sriranga I kept the fight on and repulsed Sultan’s army from Udayagiri after an initial retreat. Unfazed, Qutb Shah struck at Vinukonda and seized the fort. Sriranga I, along with Chennappa and Kasturiranga , rushed to Vinukonda and after a fierce battle the Sultan’s army was defeated and sent back. Later, Sriranga I’s troops, under Chennappa, stormed the fort of Kondavidu while the later died fighting even as he forced the Sultans army to retreat.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Despite the loss of territories, which was higher this time, Sriranga I also had a difficult time with his uncooperative brothers and noble men and continued to resist with limited resources as the Nayaks of Madurai and Gingee evaded on paying annual tributes.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Sriranga I died in 1586, without an heir and was succeeded by his youngest brother Venkatapathi Raya (Venkata II).</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Venkata II/Venkatapati Deva Raya(1586-1614 CE) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">the younger brother of Srirangal became the King of Vijayanagara Empire from 1586-1614.His reign of three decades saw a revival of strength and prosperity of the empire. He dealt successfully with the Deccan sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda, the internal disorders, promoting economic revival in the country. He brought rebelling Nayaks of Tamil Nadu and parts of present day Andhra Pradesh under control.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Sriranga II/Sriranga Chika Raya (1614-1614 CE)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> was nominated in 1614 by King Venkata II to succeed him as king of the Vijayanagara Empire in Southern India. Sriranga was supported by a faction headed by Yachamanedu of Recherla Velama dynasty , one of the Venkata II's loyal viceroys and commanders, but was not favored by a set of nobles headed by Gobburi Jagga Raya, brother (or father) of Venkata II’s queen.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Ramadeva/ Vira Rama Deva Raya (1617-1632 CE)</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">ascended the throne after a gruesome war in 1617 as the King of Vijayanagara Empire. In 1614 his father,Sriranga II the preceding King and his family were gruesomely murdered by rival factions headed by Jagga Raya, who was one of their kins. Rama Deva himself was smuggled out of the prison by Yachamanedu, a faithful commander and the viceroy of earlier king Venkata II.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Venkata III/Peda Venkata Raya (1632-1642 CE)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">, the grandson of Aliya Rama Raya became the King of Vijayanagara Empire.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">*Sriranga III (1642-1646 CE)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"> or </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">Sriranga Raya II (1642 – 1652 CE)?? </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">was the last ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire, who came to power in 1642 following the death of his uncle Venkata III. He was also a great grandson of Aliya Rama Raya.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #474b4e; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1123/861173537_6ab6798703.jpg" style="color: #fd0570; font-weight: bold;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1123/861173537_6ab6798703.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(227, 228, 228); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 333px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; width: 500px;" /></a>Bas relief of Vijaynagar lion</div><div><br />
</div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02613881465266258564noreply@blogger.com0